=Introduction= [[Image:Cerro_Pirre,_Panama.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Cerro Pirre, Panama. (Photograph by [http://www.worldwildlife.org/ WWF]/Carlos Brandorios)]] This [[ecoregion]] is found in the [[highland]]s of eastern [[Panama]], and contains [[montane forests]] which grow at [[elevation]]s from 500 to 1,800 [[meter]]s (m). Located on the land bridge between South and [[North America]], complex forests cover this [[mountain|mountainous]] [[region]] and are home to extremely high [[biodiversity|diversity]] and [[endemism]]. A number of endemic [[avifauna]] inhabit this region, including the acaruna tapaculo, Pierre bush tanager, Pierre warbler, and Tacaruna quail-dove. Parque Nacional Darién, Central America’s largest national park, is found here and protects twenty-four [[species]] of [[endangered species|endangered]] [[herpetofauna]]. The inaccessibility of the slopes has left much of the region intact, but the extension of the Pan-American Highway has led to an increase in [[agriculture|slash-and-burn agriculture]], gold [[mining]], and illegal [[trade and the environment|trade]] in local wildlife. =Location and General Description= The eastern Panamanian montane forests are located in the southeastern portion of Panama, in the Darién Province. Located in the [[highland]]s of eastern Panama, these montane forests occur from 500 [[meter]]s (m) to approximately 1,800 m, where they grade into Paramo [[grassland]]s. [[precipitation and fog|Precipitation]] on the mountains ranges between 3,000 and 4,000 [[meter|millimeter]]s (mm). In the [[Caribbean]] Coast the rainfall is higher - between 4,000 and 5,000 mm; in the central mountains it is lower, ranging from 1,700 to 2,800 mm. This southern portion of Central America is in a zone of [[plate convergence]], where two small [[oceanic plates]] are being driven down below the Caribbean continental plate. This [[plate tectonics|tectonic]] instability, combined with active volcanism, produced isolated [[volcano|volcanic]] [[island]]s between northern Central America and Colombia. The northeastern section of the [[ecoregion]] contains the Cordillera de San Blass and the Serranía del Darién, from which rises Cerro Tacarcuna (1,875 m), the highest mountain between the Andes and western Panama. The southern section encompasses discontinuous mountain chains including the Serrania de Jungurudó, Serranía de Bagre, and Serranía del Sapo, which borders the [[oceans#Pacific Ocean|Pacific Ocean]]. The [[ecoregion]] includes various [[vegetation]] types, including [[marsh]]es and swamp forests, semi-deciduous [[biomes|tropical moist forest]]s, [[premontane wet forest]], [[cloud forest]]s and [[elfin forest]]s. The last two are found at low elevations due to the [[isthmian effect]]. Semi-deciduous [[tropical weather and hurricanes|tropical]] moist forest are the most widespread; they include [[forest canopy|canopy]] trees such as ''Bombacopsis quinata'', ''B. sessilis'', ''Enterolobium cyclocarpum'', ''Licania hypoleuca'', ''Pltypodium elegans'', ''Pseudobombax septenatum'', ''Sterculia apelata'', ''Terminalia amazonica'', ''Tetragastris panamensis'' and ''Vitex cymosa''. The premontane and montane wet forests contain ''Anacardium excelsum'' as the dominant canopy tree. Other common canopy species include ''Bombacopsis'' spp., ''Brosimum guianense'', ''Ceiba pentandra'', ''Cochlospermum williamsii'', ''Dipteryx panamensis'', and ''Myroxylon balsamum''. The dominant subcanopy tree is ''Oenocarpus panamanus'', and ''Mabea occidentalis'' is the dominant understorey shrub. Cloud forest can be seen above 750 m, with ''Oenocarpus panamanus'' as the dominant species. Elfin forests are found at the highest elevations, containing the predominant ''Clusia'' spp. =Biodiversity Features= This ecoregion's combination of significant elevational changes, climatic variations, and location on the [[land bridge]] between North and South America, provide it with tremendous biological [[biodiversity|diversity]] and [[endemism]]. The lush, dense [[mountain|montane]] forest shares biological affinities with neighboring [[Colombia]]. [[Image:Iguana_species,_Darien,_Panama.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Iguana species, Darien, Panama. (Photograph by David Olson)]] This land bridge [[region]] between North and [[South America]] has allowed the mix of northern and southern species and encouraged the rise of endemic species- thus, the approximately 770 [[vertebrate]] species in the Darien Province. Among the [[mammal]]s are six [[primate]]s and five [[felid]]s. The primates include the western night monkey (''Aoutis lemurinus''), Central American spider monkey (''Ateles geoffroyi'') , brown-headed spider monkey (''Ateles fuscipes''), Geoffroy’s tamarin (''Saguinus geoffroyi''.), mantled howler monkey (''Alouatta palliata'') and white-faced capuchin (''Cebus capucinus''). Geoffroy's tamarin is found only in southern [[Costa Rica]], [[Panama]], and northwestern Colombia. The cats species are puma, jaguar (''Felis onca''), ocelot (''Leopardus pardalis''), margay (''Leopardus wiedii''), jaguarundi (''Herpailurus yaguarondi'') and oncilla (''Felis tigrina''). This [[ecoregion]] represents range limits for many species, such as the night monkey (''Aotus'' spp.) who doesn’t oocur north of this region, and of many [[bird]]s which have wider distributions in South America, including the saffron-headed parrot (''Pionopsitta pyrilia''), oilbird (''Steatornis caripensis''), and golden-headed Quetzal (''Pharomacrus auriceps''). Endemic [[herpetofauna]] in the ecoregion includes two snakes, a lizard, a salamander and five frogs. The endemic birds in this [[ecoregion]] are also present in the [[Chocό-Darién moist forests|Chocό-Darién moist forest]] ecoregion. All of the restricted-range birds are found at elevations ranging from 700-800 m, and none are considered [[threatened species|threatened]]; such birds include the Tacarcuna wood-quail (''Odontophorus dialeucos''), russet-crowned quail-dove (''Geotrygon goldmani''), bare-shanked screech-owl (''Otus clarkii''), violet-capped hummingbird (''Goldmania violiceps''), rufous-cheeked hummingbird (''Goethalsia bella''), beautiful teerunner (''Margarornis bellulus''), tacarcuna tapaculo (''Scytalopus panamensis''), nario tapaculo (''S. vicinor''), varied solitaire (''Myadestes coloratus''), sooty-faced finch (''Lysurus creassirostris''), tacarcuna bush-tanager (''Chlorospingus tacarcunae''), pirre bush-tanager (''Bangsia arcaei''), yellow-collared chlorphonia (''Chlorophonia flavirostris''), green-napped tanager (''Tangara fucosa'') and pirre warbler (''Basileuterus ignotus''). =Current Status= Steep slopes, and limited accessibility have prevented widespread [[agriculture|agricultural]] and [[urbanization|urban development]], and have contributed to the existence of large, intact blocks of [[habitat]] which still remain in these [[highland]]s. But new roads and other public infrastructure have brought colonists from central [[Panama]] who are cutting the [[forest]] rapidly. Much of the ecoregion is protected mainly by Parque Nacional Darién (5,790 km²), a World Heritage Site and Central America's largest national park, which protects 575,000 ha. This Park harbors 13 [[endangered species|endangered]] [[amphibian]]s and 11 endangered [[reptile]]s. Other protected areas in the ecoregion include Indigenous Reserves such as the Kuna de Walá Mortí and Nurrá; the Canglon Forest Reserve with 316 km² ; Chepigana Forest Reserve with 1,460 km²; and the Choco homelands Comarca Emberá No. 1 with 1,826 km². =Types and Severity of Threats= The construction of the [[Pan-American highway]] through this [[region]] has caused rapid [[colonization]] from central [[Panama]] and subsequent intensive [[deforestation]]. Forest on the foothills and hilltops will likely be the last portions eliminated, but will be isolated by the [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] associated with lowland deforestation. Extending the Pan-American highway into [[Colombia]] will exacerbate deforestation by facilitating access to the forests to poor Colombian immigrants. Even where protection of these [[montane forest]]s is enforced, the increasing destruction of middle and lower [[elevation]] habitats in surrounding ecoregions has isolated the [[highland forest]]s and made their populations vulnerable to genetic degradation. [[Cloud forest]]s are particularly sensitive to [[climate classification|climate change]]. Traditional indigenous uses have maintained substantial forest cover, but recent socio-economic pressures from the extension of the Pan American highway, forestry exploitation, and selling of illegally-caught wildlife, such as macaws, parrots, and passerine birds, is changing their ancestral attitudes toward nature. The [[biodiversity]] in these parks are threatened by the instability produced from the deterioration of government infrastructure, including parks, under pressures caused by drug-related and other violence in Colombia. Delgado described the enforcement of [[conservation]] measures in eastern Panamanian parks as ineffective. Protection is afforded to Llorona San Blas's Ridge, located in the Kuna Indian Reserve of San Blas; these highlands have maintained forest cover due to the Kuna's jealous guarding of their natural resources. =Justification of Ecoregion Delineation= These montane forests were delineated following the UNDP vegetation map, and to a lesser degree, the Navarro et al map along the border [[region]] between [[Panama]] and [[Colombia]]. This [[ecoregion]] encompasses the Serrania de Pirre, Serranía de Jungurudó, Serranía de Majé, Altos de Limos, Altos de Puna, Altos de Aspavé, and Altos de Quía regions of the Panama-Colombia border region following UNDP classifications of montane and lower montane wet and rain forests. These isolated ranges and peaks have distinct [[flora]] and [[fauna]] from the surrounding lowlands, some [[endemism|endemic species]], and are a convergence zone for Central American montane forests and Andean montane forests species assemblages. =Additional information on this ecoregion= * For a shorter summary of this entry, see the[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0122.html WWF WildWorld profile] of this ecoregion. * To see the species that live in this ecoregion, including images and threat levels, see the [http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildfinder/searchByPlace.cfm?ecoregion=NT0122 WWF Wildfinder] description of this ecoregion. * [http://www.worldwildlife.org/ World Wildlife Fund Homepage] =Further Reading= *Delgado, F. 1985. Present situation of the forest birds of Panama. In A. W. Diamond, and T. E. Lovejoy, editors, Conservation of tropical forest birds. ICBP Technical Publication No. 4. International Council for Bird Preservation, United Kingdom. *Dinerstein, E. et. al. 1995. An Evaluation on the status of conservation of terrestrial ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. World Wildlife Fund-US, Washington, D.C. *Emmons, L. 1990. Neotropical rainforest mammals. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. *Gentry, A. H. 1985. Constrasting phytogeographic patterns of upland and lowland Panamenian plants. W. G. D’Arcy and M. D. Correa-A., editors. The botany of natural history of Panama. Monogr. Syst. Bot. 10, Missouri National Botanical Garden, St. Louis. *Herrera-MacBryde, Olga and ANCON. 1997. Darien Provience. .S. D. Davis, V. H. Heywood, O. Herrera-MacBryde, J. Villa-Lobos, and A. C. Hamilton, editors. Centres of Plant Diversity: A Guide and Strategy for their Conservation, Vol. 3 The America. IUCN, WWF, Oxford, U.K. *Holdridge, L .R. 1967. Life zone ecology. Tropical Science Center, Costa Rica *INRENARE (now ANAM). 1992. Forest cover map of Panama. *Méndez, E. 1994. Estado de la Conservación de Biodiversidad en Panamá. A. Vega, editor. Corredores Conservacionistas en la Región Centroamericana: Memorias de una Conferencia Regional auspiciada por el Proyecto Paseo Pantera. Tropical Research and Development, Inc. Florida. *Navarro, A.E.S., G.H. Peña, F.C. Lemus, J.R. Baquero, R.F. Soto. 1984. Bosques de Colombia. *IGAC-INDERENA-CONIF, Bogota, Colombia. *Powell, G. 2000. Personal communication. *Stattersfield, A.J., M.J. Crosby, A.J. Long and D.C. Wege. 1998. Endemic Bird Areas of the World: Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation. Birdl. Cons. Ser. 7, Cambridge, UK. *UNDP. 1970. Mapa ecólogico de Panama. Map 1:5,000,000. Programa de las Naciones Unidas *para el Desarrollo, Panama City, Panama. *WWF and IUCN. 1997. Centres of plant diversity. A guide and strategy for their conservation. Volume 3: The Americas. United Kingdom: IUCN Publications Unit. *Young, B. E., G. Sedaghatkish, E. Roca, and Q. Fuenmayor. 1999. El estatus de la conservación de la herpetofauna de Panamá. Resumen del Primer Taller Internacional sobre la Herpetofauna de Panama. The Nature Conservancy y Asociación Nacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (ANCON). {{location| |country= Panama |continent= North America}} {{HarvestedContent| |agency=World Wildlife Fund}}

=Introduction= [[Image:Cerro_Pirre,_Panama.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Cerro Pirre, Panama. (Photograph by [http://www.worldwildlife.org/ WWF]/Carlos Brandorios)]] This [[ecoregion]] is found in the [[highland]]s of eastern [[Panama]], and contains [[montane forests]] which grow at [[elevation]]s from 500 to 1,800 [[meter]]s (m). Located on the land bridge between South and [[North America]], complex forests cover this [[mountain|mountainous]] [[region]] and are home to extremely high [[biodiversity|diversity]] and [[endemism]]. A number of endemic [[avifauna]] inhabit this region, including the acaruna tapaculo, Pierre bush tanager, Pierre warbler, and Tacaruna quail-dove. Parque Nacional Darién, Central America’s largest national park, is found here and protects twenty-four [[species]] of [[endangered species|endangered]] [[herpetofauna]]. The inaccessibility of the slopes has left much of the region intact, but the extension of the Pan-American Highway has led to an increase in [[agriculture|slash-and-burn agriculture]], gold [[mining]], and illegal [[trade and the environment|trade]] in local wildlife. =Location and General Description= The eastern Panamanian montane forests are located in the southeastern portion of Panama, in the Darién Province. Located in the [[highland]]s of eastern Panama, these montane forests occur from 500 [[meter]]s (m) to approximately 1,800 m, where they grade into Paramo [[grassland]]s. [[precipitation and fog|Precipitation]] on the mountains ranges between 3,000 and 4,000 [[meter|millimeter]]s (mm). In the [[Caribbean]] Coast the rainfall is higher - between 4,000 and 5,000 mm; in the central mountains it is lower, ranging from 1,700 to 2,800 mm. This southern portion of Central America is in a zone of [[plate convergence]], where two small [[oceanic plates]] are being driven down below the Caribbean continental plate. This [[plate tectonics|tectonic]] instability, combined with active volcanism, produced isolated [[volcano|volcanic]] [[island]]s between northern Central America and Colombia. The northeastern section of the [[ecoregion]] contains the Cordillera de San Blass and the Serranía del Darién, from which rises Cerro Tacarcuna (1,875 m), the highest mountain between the Andes and western Panama. The southern section encompasses discontinuous mountain chains including the Serrania de Jungurudó, Serranía de Bagre, and Serranía del Sapo, which borders the [[oceans#Pacific Ocean|Pacific Ocean]]. The [[ecoregion]] includes various [[vegetation]] types, including [[marsh]]es and swamp forests, semi-deciduous [[biomes|tropical moist forest]]s, [[premontane wet forest]], [[cloud forest]]s and [[elfin forest]]s. The last two are found at low elevations due to the [[isthmian effect]]. Semi-deciduous [[tropical weather and hurricanes|tropical]] moist forest are the most widespread; they include [[forest canopy|canopy]] trees such as ''Bombacopsis quinata'', ''B. sessilis'', ''Enterolobium cyclocarpum'', ''Licania hypoleuca'', ''Pltypodium elegans'', ''Pseudobombax septenatum'', ''Sterculia apelata'', ''Terminalia amazonica'', ''Tetragastris panamensis'' and ''Vitex cymosa''. The premontane and montane wet forests contain ''Anacardium excelsum'' as the dominant canopy tree. Other common canopy species include ''Bombacopsis'' spp., ''Brosimum guianense'', ''Ceiba pentandra'', ''Cochlospermum williamsii'', ''Dipteryx panamensis'', and ''Myroxylon balsamum''. The dominant subcanopy tree is ''Oenocarpus panamanus'', and ''Mabea occidentalis'' is the dominant understorey shrub. Cloud forest can be seen above 750 m, with ''Oenocarpus panamanus'' as the dominant species. Elfin forests are found at the highest elevations, containing the predominant ''Clusia'' spp. =Biodiversity Features= This ecoregion's combination of significant elevational changes, climatic variations, and location on the [[land bridge]] between North and South America, provide it with tremendous biological [[biodiversity|diversity]] and [[endemism]]. The lush, dense [[mountain|montane]] forest shares biological affinities with neighboring [[Colombia]]. [[Image:Iguana_species,_Darien,_Panama.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Iguana species, Darien, Panama. (Photograph by David Olson)]] This land bridge [[region]] between North and [[South America]] has allowed the mix of northern and southern species and encouraged the rise of endemic species- thus, the approximately 770 [[vertebrate]] species in the Darien Province. Among the [[mammal]]s are six [[primate]]s and five [[felid]]s. The primates include the western night monkey (''Aoutis lemurinus''), Central American spider monkey (''Ateles geoffroyi'') , brown-headed spider monkey (''Ateles fuscipes''), Geoffroy’s tamarin (''Saguinus geoffroyi''.), mantled howler monkey (''Alouatta palliata'') and white-faced capuchin (''Cebus capucinus''). Geoffroy's tamarin is found only in southern [[Costa Rica]], [[Panama]], and northwestern Colombia. The cats species are puma, jaguar (''Felis onca''), ocelot (''Leopardus pardalis''), margay (''Leopardus wiedii''), jaguarundi (''Herpailurus yaguarondi'') and oncilla (''Felis tigrina''). This [[ecoregion]] represents range limits for many species, such as the night monkey (''Aotus'' spp.) who doesn’t oocur north of this region, and of many [[bird]]s which have wider distributions in South America, including the saffron-headed parrot (''Pionopsitta pyrilia''), oilbird (''Steatornis caripensis''), and golden-headed Quetzal (''Pharomacrus auriceps''). Endemic [[herpetofauna]] in the ecoregion includes two snakes, a lizard, a salamander and five frogs. The endemic birds in this [[ecoregion]] are also present in the [[Chocό-Darién moist forests|Chocό-Darién moist forest]] ecoregion. All of the restricted-range birds are found at elevations ranging from 700-800 m, and none are considered [[threatened species|threatened]]; such birds include the Tacarcuna wood-quail (''Odontophorus dialeucos''), russet-crowned quail-dove (''Geotrygon goldmani''), bare-shanked screech-owl (''Otus clarkii''), violet-capped hummingbird (''Goldmania violiceps''), rufous-cheeked hummingbird (''Goethalsia bella''), beautiful teerunner (''Margarornis bellulus''), tacarcuna tapaculo (''Scytalopus panamensis''), nario tapaculo (''S. vicinor''), varied solitaire (''Myadestes coloratus''), sooty-faced finch (''Lysurus creassirostris''), tacarcuna bush-tanager (''Chlorospingus tacarcunae''), pirre bush-tanager (''Bangsia arcaei''), yellow-collared chlorphonia (''Chlorophonia flavirostris''), green-napped tanager (''Tangara fucosa'') and pirre warbler (''Basileuterus ignotus''). =Current Status= Steep slopes, and limited accessibility have prevented widespread [[agriculture|agricultural]] and [[urbanization|urban development]], and have contributed to the existence of large, intact blocks of [[habitat]] which still remain in these [[highland]]s. But new roads and other public infrastructure have brought colonists from central [[Panama]] who are cutting the [[forest]] rapidly. Much of the ecoregion is protected mainly by Parque Nacional Darién (5,790 km²), a World Heritage Site and Central America's largest national park, which protects 575,000 ha. This Park harbors 13 [[endangered species|endangered]] [[amphibian]]s and 11 endangered [[reptile]]s. Other protected areas in the ecoregion include Indigenous Reserves such as the Kuna de Walá Mortí and Nurrá; the Canglon Forest Reserve with 316 km² ; Chepigana Forest Reserve with 1,460 km²; and the Choco homelands Comarca Emberá No. 1 with 1,826 km². =Types and Severity of Threats= The construction of the [[Pan-American highway]] through this [[region]] has caused rapid [[colonization]] from central [[Panama]] and subsequent intensive [[deforestation]]. Forest on the foothills and hilltops will likely be the last portions eliminated, but will be isolated by the [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] associated with lowland deforestation. Extending the Pan-American highway into [[Colombia]] will exacerbate deforestation by facilitating access to the forests to poor Colombian immigrants. Even where protection of these [[montane forest]]s is enforced, the increasing destruction of middle and lower [[elevation]] habitats in surrounding ecoregions has isolated the [[highland forest]]s and made their populations vulnerable to genetic degradation. [[Cloud forest]]s are particularly sensitive to [[climate classification|climate change]]. Traditional indigenous uses have maintained substantial forest cover, but recent socio-economic pressures from the extension of the Pan American highway, forestry exploitation, and selling of illegally-caught wildlife, such as macaws, parrots, and passerine birds, is changing their ancestral attitudes toward nature. The [[biodiversity]] in these parks are threatened by the instability produced from the deterioration of government infrastructure, including parks, under pressures caused by drug-related and other violence in Colombia. Delgado described the enforcement of [[conservation]] measures in eastern Panamanian parks as ineffective. Protection is afforded to Llorona San Blas's Ridge, located in the Kuna Indian Reserve of San Blas; these highlands have maintained forest cover due to the Kuna's jealous guarding of their natural resources. =Justification of Ecoregion Delineation= These montane forests were delineated following the UNDP vegetation map, and to a lesser degree, the Navarro et al map along the border [[region]] between [[Panama]] and [[Colombia]]. This [[ecoregion]] encompasses the Serrania de Pirre, Serranía de Jungurudó, Serranía de Majé, Altos de Limos, Altos de Puna, Altos de Aspavé, and Altos de Quía regions of the Panama-Colombia border region following UNDP classifications of montane and lower montane wet and rain forests. These isolated ranges and peaks have distinct [[flora]] and [[fauna]] from the surrounding lowlands, some [[endemism|endemic species]], and are a convergence zone for Central American montane forests and Andean montane forests species assemblages. =Additional information on this ecoregion= * For a shorter summary of this entry, see the[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0122.html WWF WildWorld profile] of this ecoregion. * To see the species that live in this ecoregion, including images and threat levels, see the [http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildfinder/searchByPlace.cfm?ecoregion=NT0122 WWF Wildfinder] description of this ecoregion. * [http://www.worldwildlife.org/ World Wildlife Fund Homepage] =Further Reading= *Delgado, F. 1985. Present situation of the forest birds of Panama. In A. W. Diamond, and T. E. Lovejoy, editors, Conservation of tropical forest birds. ICBP Technical Publication No. 4. International Council for Bird Preservation, United Kingdom. *Dinerstein, E. et. al. 1995. An Evaluation on the status of conservation of terrestrial ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. World Wildlife Fund-US, Washington, D.C. *Emmons, L. 1990. Neotropical rainforest mammals. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. *Gentry, A. H. 1985. Constrasting phytogeographic patterns of upland and lowland Panamenian plants. W. G. D’Arcy and M. D. Correa-A., editors. The botany of natural history of Panama. Monogr. Syst. Bot. 10, Missouri National Botanical Garden, St. Louis. *Herrera-MacBryde, Olga and ANCON. 1997. Darien Provience. .S. D. Davis, V. H. Heywood, O. Herrera-MacBryde, J. Villa-Lobos, and A. C. Hamilton, editors. Centres of Plant Diversity: A Guide and Strategy for their Conservation, Vol. 3 The America. IUCN, WWF, Oxford, U.K. *Holdridge, L .R. 1967. Life zone ecology. Tropical Science Center, Costa Rica *INRENARE (now ANAM). 1992. Forest cover map of Panama. *Méndez, E. 1994. Estado de la Conservación de Biodiversidad en Panamá. A. Vega, editor. Corredores Conservacionistas en la Región Centroamericana: Memorias de una Conferencia Regional auspiciada por el Proyecto Paseo Pantera. Tropical Research and Development, Inc. Florida. *Navarro, A.E.S., G.H. Peña, F.C. Lemus, J.R. Baquero, R.F. Soto. 1984. Bosques de Colombia. *IGAC-INDERENA-CONIF, Bogota, Colombia. *Powell, G. 2000. Personal communication. *Stattersfield, A.J., M.J. Crosby, A.J. Long and D.C. Wege. 1998. Endemic Bird Areas of the World: Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation. Birdl. Cons. Ser. 7, Cambridge, UK. *UNDP. 1970. Mapa ecólogico de Panama. Map 1:5,000,000. Programa de las Naciones Unidas *para el Desarrollo, Panama City, Panama. *WWF and IUCN. 1997. Centres of plant diversity. A guide and strategy for their conservation. Volume 3: The Americas. United Kingdom: IUCN Publications Unit. *Young, B. E., G. Sedaghatkish, E. Roca, and Q. Fuenmayor. 1999. El estatus de la conservación de la herpetofauna de Panamá. Resumen del Primer Taller Internacional sobre la Herpetofauna de Panama. The Nature Conservancy y Asociación Nacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (ANCON). {{location| |country= Panama |continent= North America}} {{HarvestedContent| |agency=World Wildlife Fund}}