Continued environmental degradation in
all regions is unfairly shifting burdens onto
future generations, and contradicts the
principle of intergenerational equity.

Chapter 6: Sustaining a Common Future

Main messages

Multi-stakeholder consultations organized in the seven GEO regions as part of the GEO-4 assessment show that the regions share common concerns about a number of critical environmental and sustainability issues as well as face tremendous differences in their environmental challenges. The assessment highlights strong interdependencies reinforced by globalization and trade, with growing demand on resources in and across the regions. Some of the main common messages arising out of regional analyses include the following:

Population and economic growth are major factors fuelling increased demand on resources, and contributing to global environmental change in terms of the atmosphere, land, water and biodiversity. Four of the regions identified climate change as a key priority issue (Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America, and the Polar Regions). The other regions have also highlighted climate change as a major issue. Developed regions have higher per capita emissions of greenhouse gases, while climate change impacts will have greater effects on the poor and other vulnerable people and countries.

There has been an encouraging decoupling of environmental pressures from economic growth in some areas. However, globalization has contributed to the achievement of environmental progress in some developed regions at the expense of developing countries through the outsourcing of energy, food and industrial production, and the subsequent relocation of related environmental and social impacts. Disparities in ecological impacts prevail, and environmental inequities continue to grow. Gender inequities continue in many regions where women often have limited access to natural resources, and are exposed to the health risks of indoor air pollution.

There are examples of good environmental governance and investments in new technologies that provide models for other regions. Economic, political and social integration, combined with good governance, is making Europe a leader in transboundary environmental decision making. North America is a model in providing access to superior quality environmental information, and investments in research and development. Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean and West Asia have also made great strides in tackling some of their environment and development challenges. Integrated watershed management is increasing in many regions, helping to protect and restore ecosystems.

Unique regional concerns emphasize the diversity of environmental issues across the globe. The variety of the main regional environmental messages is reflected in the following:

In Africa, land degradation is the overarching environmental issue of concern, affecting some 5 million square kilometers of land by 1990 and contributing to loss of livelihoods. Poverty is both a cause and a consequence of land degradation: poor people are forced to put immediate needs before the long-term quality of the land, while degraded farmland and poor yields contribute to food and income insecurity. Per capita food production in Africa has declined by 12 per cent since 1981. Drought and climate change and variability exacerbate land degradation. In addition to threatening the livelihoods of the rural poor, land degradation has widespread effects on Africa’s river catchments, forests, the expansion of deserts, and it diminishes ecosystem services. Regional efforts to stop land degradation include integrated crop and land management programmes that also seek to improve yields. Policy shortcomings in addressing the issue still exist, as do unfair agricultural subsidies in developed regions.

In Asia and the Pacific, rapid population growth, higher incomes, and burgeoning industrial and urban development are causing a number of environmental problems that have implications for human health and well-being. The priority issues are urban air quality, stress on freshwater, degraded ecosystems, agricultural land use and increased waste. A number of factors have led to an increase in urban air pollution: a highly urbanized population; poorly planned municipal development; a lack of affordable and clean mass transport services; the massive increase in motorized vehicles, with the use of passenger cars in the region increasing about 2.5 times over the last two decades; and haze pollution from forest fires in South East Asia. Air pollution causes the premature deaths of about 500,000 people annually in Asia. Excessive withdrawals from surface waters and aquifers, industrial pollution, inefficient use, climate change and variability, and natural disasters are major causes of water stress, threatening human well-being and ecological health. There has been remarkable progress in the provision of improved drinking water over the last decade, but some 655 million people in the region (17.6 per cent) still lack access to safe water. Valuable ecosystems continue to be degraded. Except for Central Asia, most sub-regions have applied sufficient counter measures to successfully overcome the impacts of land degradation on agricultural production. Rapid economic growth, together with new lifestyles associated with greater affluence, have led to rapid changes in consumption patterns. This has contributed to the generation of large quantities of waste, and changes in waste composition. The illegal traffic in electronic and hazardous waste and their effects on human health and the environment pose new and growing challenges. Most countries have developed extensive domestic laws, regulations and standards related to the environment, and participate in global action through multilateral and bilateral agreements.

In Europe, rising incomes and growing numbers of households contribute to unsustainable production and consumption, increased energy use and emissions of greenhouse gases, poor urban air quality and transportation challenges. Biodiversity loss, land-use change and freshwater stresses are the other priority issues. The region has made progress in decoupling economic growth from resource use and environmental pressures, although per capita household consumption is steadily increasing. Since 1987, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the energy sector have been reduced in Western Europe, but have increased since the end of the 1990s across the whole region, partly because increasing natural gas prices have re-established coal as a key energy source. Recently, growing public awareness, underpinned by rising energy prices, has given a new political momentum to climate change policies. Despite much progress, poor water and urban air quality still cause substantial problems in parts of the region, affecting the health and quality of life of many people. However, in most parts of the region, water quality has improved since 1990 due to reductions in contaminant loads from wastewater treatment and industries, as well as a decline in industrial and agricultural activity. Emissions of air pollutants are largely driven by the demand for greater mobility. The EU has been imposing progressively stricter pollution controls on vehicles. Farming in marginal areas is under pressure, and is subject to both land abandonment and intensification, both of which have impacts on biodiversity. With its many action plans and legal instruments at different levels, the region has a unique experience of environmental cooperation.

In Latin America and the Caribbean, the priority environmental issues are growing cities, threats to biodiversity and ecosystems, degraded coasts and polluted seas, and regional vulnerability to climate change. Regionalization and globalization have triggered an increase in oil and gas extraction, expanded the use of arable land for monoculture exports and intensified tourism. As a result, decreased access to rural livelihoods has helped fuel the continued unplanned growth of urban areas. The region is the most urbanized in the developing world, with 77 per cent of the total population living in cities. The quality of fuels (both gasoline and diesel) has gradually improved throughout the region, but urban air pollution and associated health impacts are high and increasing. Untreated domestic and industrial wastewaters are on the rise, affecting coastal areas, where 50 per cent of the people live. Domestic waste is generally insufficiently treated. Land use change has had impacts on biodiversity and cultural diversity. The conversion of forest land to pastures, monoculture planted forests, infrastructure and urban areas is causing habitat loss and fragmentation, as well as the loss of indigenous knowledge and cultures. Other pressures are from wood harvesting, forest fires and the extraction of fossil fuels. Integrated prevention and control programmes are helping to decrease annual deforestation rates in the Amazon. Land degradation affects 15.7 per cent of the region, due to deforestation, overgrazing and inappropriate irrigation. Protected areas now cover 11 per cent of the land base, and new efforts are being made to conserve corridors and the Amazon, but more efforts are needed to protect hot spots. Declining water quality, climate change and algal blooms have contributed to the rise in waterborne diseases in coastal regions. To address the pressures, integrated marine and coastal areas management is increasing. Extreme climatic events have increased over the past 20 years, and the region is subject to climate change impacts, such as retreating glaciers.

In North America, energy use, urban sprawl and freshwater stresses can all be related to climate change, an issue the region is struggling to address. With only 5.1 per cent of world population, North America consumes just over 24 per cent of global primary energy. The consumption of energy is responsible for much of the region’s high and increasing GHG emissions that contribute to climate change. Canada signed the Kyoto Protocol, and has produced a plan to become more energy efficient, while some US states are showing impressive action to reduce energy use and emissions in the absence of mandatory federal caps. Further gains in energy efficiency have been hampered by increased use of larger and less fuel-efficient vehicles, low fuel economy standards, and increases in distances travelled and the number of cars. Sprawling suburbs and a growing trend towards exurban settlement patterns are fragmenting ecosystems, increasing the urban-wildlife interface and paving over prime agricultural land. Although there are policies to contain sprawl, suburban life is deeply imbedded in the culture and landscape. The past 20 years have seen important regional water shortages, and climate change is expected to exacerbate water deficits. Agriculture is the major water user, and irrigation continues to increase, competing with urban centres for limited supplies. In response, water restrictions and conservation strategies have become widespread. The human health impacts of environmental change are an emerging issue, as it becomes more evident that air pollution is linked to respiratory diseases, and there are significant economic costs.

In West Asia, freshwater stresses, land degradation, coastal and marine ecosystems degradation, urban management, and peace and security are the priority issues. The region’s environment is predominantly dryland, with great variability in rainfall within and between seasons, and frequent spells of drought. West Asia is one of the most water-stressed regions in the world. Reflecting rapid population growth and socio-economic development, overall per capita freshwater availability has fallen, while consumption has risen. Agriculture uses 80 per cent of the region’s available water. Aided by subsidies, irrigated agriculture has expanded to achieve food security, but inefficient methods and poor planning have put immense pressure on the limited resource. Desalination of seawater provides the bulk of municipal water in the GCC countries, but sustainability is hampered by a lack of demand management and price-signalling mechanisms. The level of sewage treatment is low, so shallow aquifers are polluted, and have high levels of nitrates, a health hazard. In the Mashriq sub-region, water-borne diseases are a major concern. Since more than 60 per cent of surface water resources originate from outside the region, the sharing of international water resources is another major challenge. With increased urbanization and growing economies, the number of vehicles has risen enormously. Although unleaded gasoline has been introduced in most of the countries, continued use of leaded gas contributes to air pollution, and poor human health and economic performance. In some countries, growing economic disparities, rising rural-urban migration and/or military conflicts have led to the expansion of slum areas, and increased human suffering, often related to deteriorating environmental conditions. Land degradation is a key issue, especially since fragile drylands constitute about 64 per cent of the total area. A number of factors have led to the deterioration of marine and coastal areas, including fisheries, mangroves and coral reefs. They include rapid development of urban and tourism infrastructure, and of refineries, petrochemical complexes, power and desalination plants, as well as oil spills from ship ballast. Vast areas of terrestrial and marine ecosystems have been severely affected by wars, which led to the discharge of millions of barrels of crude oil into coastal waters. They have also been harmed by the infiltration of oil and seawater into aquifers, and by hazardous waste disposal. Environmental impact assessment requirements were introduced recently. Other responses include programmes to conserve biodiversity, manage coastal zones and develop marine protected areas.

The Polar Regions influence major environmental processes, and have direct impacts on global biodiversity and human well-being. The priority issues are climate change, persistent pollutants, the depletion of the ozone layer, and commercial activity. Even though their GHG emissions are negligible, the Polar Regions are part of a cycle of global climate change impacts, such as altered ocean currents and rising sea levels. Evidence shows that circulation of the deep, cold water of the North Atlantic conveyor belt may have slowed. Its breakdown could precipitate an abrupt change in global climate regimes. As a result of climate change, the Arctic is warming twice as fast as the world average, causing shrinking sea ice, melting glaciers and changes in vegetation. The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are the largest contributors to the sea level rise from melting land ice. Observed climate change has wide-ranging impacts on plants, animals and human well-being in the Arctic. Although the manufacture and use of many persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been banned in most industrialized countries, they persist in the environment and accumulate in cold regions where they enter marine and terrestrial ecosystems, and build up in food chains. Mercury from industrial emissions is also increasing in the environment. These toxic substances pose a threat to the integrity of the traditional food system and the health of indigenous peoples. Action by scientists and northern indigenous peoples resulted in several important treaties to address toxic chemicals. Stratospheric ozone depletion in the Polar Regions has resulted in seasonal increase in ultraviolet radiation, with impacts on ecosystems and increased human health risks. Despite the success of the Montreal Protocol, recovery of the stratospheric ozone layer is expected to take another half century, or more.

Regional Developments

Cotton bales ready for export from Cameroon. Farmers in developing regions face many challenges due to unfair global markets. (Credit: Mark Edwards/Still Pictures)

Since the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission), international and national environmental policies have invoked sustainable development to address the impacts of economic growth, ensure a clean environment today and in the future, and reduce the cumulative effects of poverty. The 2005 United Nations Summit was one of the largest gatherings of world leaders in history. It emphasized the urgency and relevance of achieving more sustainable development. According to the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, “the planet seems at least as unsustainable as in 1987” ^[63]. Sustainable development is particularly critical in a world where pressures on the environment are increasing, with a wide range of ensuing impacts on the environment and human health. Some of the impacts, such as climate change, long-range air pollution and upstream-to-downstream water pollution can have far-reaching effects.

Economic trends

Economic trends over the past two decades have played a significant role in shaping the state of the world’s environment (see Chapter 1). In 1987, many developing countries were in an economic downturn, characterized by falling prices for their exports, which consist mainly of raw materials, such as mineral ores and agricultural products. The prices of such commodities have often not increased significantly since the 1980s, and the current economic order has been worsened by growing loan repayment burdens. Africa, for example, enjoys only 5 per cent of the developing world’s income, but it carries about two-thirds of the global debt^[64], with sub-Saharan Africa spending US$14.5 billion yearly on debt repayments^[65]. Despite some recent efforts towards debt relief, developing countries in Africa and other regions are still forced to exploit the limited capital tied up in their natural resources.

The Brundtland Commission highlighted poverty alleviation as one of the key responses needed to address the world’s environmental problems, and this is still valid today. Poverty and environmental degradation have a cause-and-effect relationship, and can fall into a cycle that is difficult to reverse^[66]. Some argue that the past two decades have seen too modest and uneven economic growth rates (see Figure 6.1 and Figure 1.7 in Chapter 1, which shows 20-year averages at a country level) to have influenced a significant positive effect on the state of the environment. However, a contrary argument is that economic growth is the cause of current environmental degradation. The conundrum is illustrated by the case of nutrient loading, which was highlighted in GEO-3 as a priority environmental issue^[67]. Large-scale fertilizer applications boost yields of hybrid crops, which the Brundtland Commission projected would increase food production through a green revolution. While fertilizers have made a positive contribution to growth of the agricultural sector, and ultimately to the economy, excessive nutrients from agricultural inputs have also contributed to soil degradation, and affected freshwater quality and marine ecosystems, endangering the ecosystem services that are the basis of long-term economic prosperity^[68].

Livelihood conditions

Fig 6.1 GDP by GEO region.^[1]

Across the world, there is a clear trend of increasing food production to keep pace with growing populations and rising incomes. The world’s population is currently estimated at 6.7 billion, having grown by some 1.7 billion since 1987^[69]. The Brundtland Commission warned against attributing environmental problems to population growth alone, since global environmental problems can also be accounted for by inequalities in access to resources and their unsustainable use. Prior to 1987, developed countries, with one-quarter of the world’s population, consumed about 80 per cent of commercial energy and metals, 85 per cent of paper, and more than half of the fat contained in food^[70]. The situation virtually remains the same today, with North America, for example, consuming over 24 per cent of the total global primary energy despite having only 5.1 per cent of the world’s population^[71].

The world continues to undergo regional and national economic changes that have global consequences. These include trade and subsidies. For example, the World Trade Organization (WTO) relies on regional trade agreements to settle disputes between member countries. While many of these disputes deal exclusively with trade issues, some focus on the use of environmental or social measures taken by countries that allegedly affect foreign competition. Examples include efforts by the United States to protect dolphins and sea turtles from harmful fishing, efforts that have been challenged under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the WTO. These were called the tuna-dolphin and shrimp-turtle disputes. Other well-known cases include beef and hormones (United States vs. European Community), gasoline and air quality (Venezuela and Brazil vs. United States), softwood lumber (Canada vs. United States), asbestos (Canada vs. France and the European Community), and most recently, genetically modified organisms (United States vs. European Community)^[72].

In the United States and Europe, food surpluses are partly a result of subsidies and other incentives that stimulate production, even where there is little or no demand. In the 10-year period from 1995 to 2004, the US government provided some US$143.8 billion in subsidies to its farmers^[73]. Although this averages about half the annual cost of food aid in 1986, which stood at US$25.8 billion^[74], the impact on developing countries is significant. Many of them find it cheaper to import food than to produce their own, and are forced to focus on producing export crops such as cotton, tobacco, tea and coffee. This reduces agricultural opportunities for smallholder subsistence farmers, leading to food insecurity, particularly in rural areas, or unsustainable urban growth as a result of rural to urban migration.

Table 6.1 Key regional priority issues selected for GEO-4.

In theory, global natural resources have the capacity to produce enough food, medicine, shelter and other life-supporting services for an even larger population (see Box 6.1). In reality, this is not the case, due to the uneven distribution of such resources, including fertile and well-watered land, forests, wetlands and genetic resources. The capacity of these natural resources to support life is diminished by land degradation, air and water pollution, climate variability and change, deforestation, and loss of habitats and biodiversity. As a result of the uneven access to, and unbalanced production levels of natural resources, the world continues to suffer disparities in food production levels, with both food surpluses in some regions and widespread food shortages in others.

Box 6.1 Increasing demand – diminishing global natural resources[75]

Global environmental problems are more evident today than they were two decades ago. For example, by 2003 global CO2 emissions had increased by 17 per cent compared to 1990 levels. The rapidly-expanding economies of China and India are contributing significantly to this increase. China is already the second largest CO2 emitter after the United States. Fig 6.2 Ecological footprint and biocapacity by region, 2003.[2] Most of these emissions come from energy generation. The resulting air pollution has a significant impact not only on local and human health, but also on the global climate (see Chapter 2). Despite the Brundtland Commission’s recommendation for the introduction of fuel-efficient modern technologies, and the commitment by the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 to diversify energy supply and substantially increase the global share of renewable energy sources, it is projected that fossil fuels will remain the dominant energy source to 2025, accounting for over 80 per cent of the energy demand. Therefore, the world continues to be locked into unsustainable energy patterns that are associated with climate change and other environmental and human health threats. This situation is compounded by disparities in regional energy consumption patterns (see Figure 1.8 in Chapter 1). It is projected that over 70 per cent of the increase in energy demand up to 2025 will come from developing countries, with China alone accounting for 30 per cent, implying that both developed and developing regions will have major impacts on both air quality and global climate change. The unsustainability of the way the Earth’s natural resources are being used is increasingly evident. As a result of the growing competition and demand for global resources, the world’s population has reached a stage where the amount of resources needed to sustain it exceeds what is available. An example of ecological overshoot is seen in attempts to increase food production that result in increased levels of environmental degradation, such as deforestation of marginal lands, including wetlands, upper watersheds and protected areas that have been converted to farmlands. According to the 2005 Footprint of Nations report, humanity’s footprint is 21.9 ha/person, while the Earth’s biological capacity is, on average, only 15.7 ha/person, with the ultimate result that there is net environmental degradation and loss. On a regional level, the differences in footprint are profound, as illustrated in the Living Planet Report 2006 (see Figure 6.2)

Selected environmental issues

The following sections of this chapter examine the most significant environmental issues in the seven UNEP regions: Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America, West Asia, and the Polar Regions (see the regional maps in the introductory section of this report). Regional overlaps exist across some of the regions, due to historical links and biophysical ties, which make it difficult to strictly disaggregate data. Examples of overlaps among regions include the case of Africa, Europe and West Asia, where the Mediterranean provides a quasi border (see Box 6.46), and that of Latin America and Caribbean and the North American regions, with their overlaps.

Each region held consultations to identify its regional issues of global significance. From these consultations, between one and five key environmental priority issues were selected for focused analyses in each regional section (see Table 6.1).

All regions report progress over the past 20 years in making environmental matters part of mainstream politics. In most regions, sustainable development strategies have been formulated, and are being integrated into national policies. The public, including indigenous peoples, participates to a much greater degree in environmental decision making (see the Polar section).

A more holistic approach to environmental management is being taken, with ecosystem approaches becoming common. For example, promising new integrated management strategies that involve public participation are being introduced in both freshwater and marine systems to protect valuable resources and livelihoods. The economic value of ecosystem services is now recognized, and some payment schemes are emerging. In many regions, proposed projects now require environmental impact assessments. Recycling and other waste management strategies are evolving in many areas, and sustainable consumption is increasingly promoted. In recognition of the transboundary nature of environmental pressures and impacts, better models of managing shared environments have emerged, such as regional seas.

Africa

Drivers of Change

Socio-economic trends

Fig 6.3 Annual total and per capita GDP growth rate in Africa.^[3]

Africa’s social and economic performance has improved in recent years. Between 1995 and 2004, African economies have grown (Figure 6.3). In 2004, the economic growth rate in terms of purchasing power was 5.8 per cent, up from 4 per cent in 2003^[76]. Sub-Saharan Africa’s economies must grow at an average annual rate of 7 per cent to reduce income poverty by half by 2015^[77]. Improved economic growth since the mid- 1990s has increased the region’s chances to meet key MDG targets, and this may have a positive effect on the environment^[78]. However, the demand on the region’s resources is growing as a result of the increasing human population (see Figure 6.4) and economic activities.

Environmental governance

Fig 6.4 Population trends.^[4]

Since 1987, several major regional developments have resulted in significant changes in the way environmental issues are managed in Africa. They include political reforms, institution building and new policy measures that reinforce the Brundtland Commission’s messages, and seek to promote sustainable development.

Among key political reforms since 1987 was the transformation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) to the African Union (AU) in 2002 to focus greater attention on accelerated regional political and socio-economic development. In this context, African leaders launched a major regional socioeconomic and development plan in 2003, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD).

The UN General Assembly adopted NEPAD as the framework for Africa’s development, under which the 2003 Action Plan of the Environment Initiative (EAP), Africa’s most recent regional environmental policy, was developed. The EAP seeks to address Africa’s environmental challenges, while combating poverty and promoting socio-economic development. Prepared under the leadership of the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN), a pan-African forum for environment ministers established in 1985, it strengthens cooperation in halting the degradation of Africa’s environment, and in satisfying the region’s food and energy needs^[79]. AMCEN has since matured into a forum that provides a framework for environmental policy orientation while defending Africa’s stake and interests on the international stage.

Although still weak, there have been a number of policy initiatives since the Brundtland Commission, including landmark multilateral agreements, such as the 1991 Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes Within Africa, and the 1994 Lusaka Agreement on Co-operative Enforcement Operations Directed at Illegal Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora.

Some policies were already in place before 1987. These include the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (Algiers Convention), the first Africa-wide environmental convention for the conservation, use and development of soil, water, flora and fauna in accordance with scientific principles, and with due regard to the best interests of the people. The treaty has been revised and was adopted by the AU Assembly in July 2003. The new text makes the convention comprehensive and modern, and the first regional treaty to deal with a wide spectrum of sustainable development issues^[80]. Other earlier regional conventions include the 1981 Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region (Abidjan Convention), and the 1985 Nairobi Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region.

People in Africa recognize that land use and degradation have cross-cutting impacts on other resources, including forests, freshwater, marine and coastal resources. Similarly, issues such as drought, climate variability and change, and urbanization act as pressures that exacerbate land degradation.

Selected Issue: Land Degradation

Land resources: endowments and opportunities

Africa’s 53 countries have a total land area of about 30 million square kilometres, comprised of a variety of ecosystems, including forests and woodlands, drylands, grasslands, wetlands, arable lands, coastal zones, freshwater, mountain and urban areas. The 8.7 million km² of Africa’s land that is considered suitable for agricultural production has the potential to support the majority of the region’s people^[81]. Forest land covers 6.4 million km², representing 16 per cent of the global forest cover^[82]. The Congo River basin has Africa’s largest forest reserve, and is the second largest contiguous block of tropical rain forest in the world after the Amazon^[83].

Covering about 1 per cent of Africa’s total land area, wetlands are found in virtually all countries, and are a key land feature^[84]. Some of the more prominent wetlands include the Congo Swamps, the Chad Basin, the Okavango Delta, the Bangweulu swamps, Lake George, the floodplains and deltas of the Niger and Zambezi rivers, and South Africa’s Greater St Lucia Park wetlands.

About 43 per cent of Africa’s land is “susceptible” dryland^[85] (see Chapter 3). This figure excludes hyper-arid areas, such as about two-thirds of the Sahara in Northern Africa, which, at over 9 million km², is the largest desert in the world^[86]. Together with Namibia’s Skeleton Coast, the Kgalagadi (Kalahari) desert in Southern Africa (mainly arid land) is the world’s largest body of sand^[87].

Mountains are also important land features in Africa, especially for smaller countries, including Swaziland, Lesotho and Rwanda, which rank among the world’s top 20 mountainous countries^[88]. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), Mount Kenya and Ruwenzori (Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo) are Africa’s three highest mountains^[89].

Rolling grasslands dotted with trees, often called savannah, are extensive in Africa. Savannah grasslands occur in areas where rainfall is sufficient to prevent the establishment of desert vegetation but too low to support rain forests. They are held between these two extremes by climate, grazing and fire. Savannahs are among the most spectacular biomes from both landscape and wildlife perspectives. Savannah grasslands mainly cover parts of most sub-Saharan countries (Maya 2003).

Fig 6.5 Major land-use categories in Africa, 2002.^[5]

Clearly, land is an environmental, social and economic good that is critical to the realization of opportunities for the people of Africa. Figure 6.5 shows the share of Africa’s main land uses, including pastures, cropland, forests and woodlands. Agriculture is the dominant land use in Africa, and the biggest employer, although trends since 1996 show a small decline in its importance relative to other employment sectors (see Figure 6.6). Other economic activities that African people depend on include fisheries, forestry, mining and tourism.

Some of the world’s major tea, coffee and cocoa-producing countries are in Africa. For example, Kenya is the fourth largest tea producer in the world with 324,600 tonnes in 2004, up from 236,290 tonnes in 2000^[90].

Fig 6.6 Changes in sectoral shares in employment in sub-Saharan Africa.^[6]

Horticulture, which accounts for 20 per cent of global agricultural trade, and is the fastest-growing agricultural sector, has significant potential in Africa. According to the Africa Environment Outlook 2 report^[91], horticultural exports in sub-Saharan Africa exceed US$2 billion/year. Africa could benefit more if it were to fully utilize its irrigation potential: a mere 7 per cent of all arable land in Africa is under irrigation^[92].

In addition to agriculture, African peoples rely on fisheries to provide some of their food needs. Nearly 10 million people depend on fishing, fish farming, and fish processing and trade. Africa produces 7.3 million tonnes of fish/year, 90 per cent of which is caught by small-scale fishers. In 2005, the region’s fish exports were worth US$2.7 billion^[93].

Electricity, mainly hydropower, is critical to the growth of the economy. Africa’s hydropower potential is not fully used; only five per cent of the economically feasible hydropower potential of 1 million gigawatt hours/year is utilized^[94].

Box 6.2 Nature-based tourism[95]

Nature-based tourism is a major growth industry. (Credit: Ngoma Photos) Nature-based tourism is one of the fastest growing tourism sectors worldwide, representing 7 per cent of the total worldwide export of goods-and-services. Nature-based tourism depends on the conservation of natural landscapes and wildlife, and using ecosystems in this way promotes both human well-being and biodiversity conservation (see Chapter 7).

Fig 6.7 Examples of current and possible future impacts and vulnerabilities associated with climate variability and change in Africa.^[7]

Resources such as forests and woodlands provide a wide range of goods-and-services, including firewood and construction timber. Although less evident, they also provide ecosystem functions, such as protecting the soil from erosion, protecting watersheds and regulating water flows. Through habitat provision, land resources are vital to the growth of wildlife-based tourism in Africa (see Box 6.2). Africa is also endowed with different minerals, including 70 per cent of the world diamonds, 55 per cent of its gold and at least 25 per cent of chromites^[96]. Many minerals have yet to be exploited.

Land pressures

Africa’s land is under pressure from increased resource demand due to a growing population, natural disasters, climate change and extreme weather events such as drought and floods, and the inappropriate use of technology and chemicals. Drought can exacerbate land degradation in the drylands (see Chapter 3 and Box 6.3). Land is also degraded through poorly planned and managed activities related to agriculture, forestry and industry, as well as from the impacts of urban slums and infrastructure development (see Chapter 3).

Fig 6.8 Per capita arable land.^[8]

Africa is one of the most vulnerable regions to climate variability and change because of multiple stresses and low adaptive capacity, according to some new studies (see Figure 6.7). Some adaptation to current climate variability is taking place, however, this may be insufficient for future changes in climate^[98].

With a growing population, Africa faces declining per capita access to arable land (Figure 6.8) even as the region struggles to increase food production per unit area. Per capita agricultural production declined by 0.4 per cent between 2000 and 2004^[99]. Land degradation exacerbates poor food production, increasing food insecurity.

Forest conversion

Africa has the highest deforestation rate of the world’s regions. The region loses an estimated 40,000 km², or 0.62 per cent of its forests annually, compared to the global average deforestation rate of 0.18 per cent^[100]. Africa’s pristine natural forests are being replaced by extensive areas of secondary forests, grasslands and degraded lands. Variation within the region is large. Reported net losses are most significant in those countries with the greatest extent of forests, such as Angola, Tanzania and Zambia in Eastern and Southern Africa, but the rate of loss has shown signs of declining slightly since 2000^[101].

Land tenure

The communal land tenure system, in which property is collectively owned, is often cited as the reason for overexploitation of land, contributing to land degradation and deforestation. Under such a system, the costs of impacts such as land degradation, siltation and water pollution are borne by the community as a whole, while potential benefits accrue to the individual. Poor land tenure regimes that precipitate ineffective land-use planning and management can only lead to overexploitation of the resource, contributing to increased land degradation, salinization, pollution, soil erosion and conversion of fragile lands^[102].

Urbanization

Although by far the least urbanized region of the world (see Chapter 1, Figure 1.6), at 3.3 per cent annual growth between 2000 and 2005, Africa has the world’s highest rate of urbanization, with the urban population doubling every 20 years, and an estimated 347 million people (38 per cent of Africans) living in urban settlements by 2005^[103]. While urban areas are centres of economic activity, innovation and development, the rapidly expanding urban centres are encroaching on rural and agriculturally productive land. In addition some of Africa’s urban centres are increasingly characterized by rising poverty levels. Over 72 per cent of the urban population in sub-Saharan Africa lives in slums, without adequate housing, drinking water and sanitation facilities^[104]. Informal settlements pose a threat to environmental integrity through practices such as illegal and uncontrolled waste disposal. Poverty is forcing urban dwellers to adopt alternative livelihood strategies such as urban agriculture, which supplements food needs and generates household income.

Land degradation trends

Land degradation is a serious problem in Africa, especially in drylands (see Chapter 3). By 1990, land degradation affected an estimated 5 million km² of the continent^[105]. In 1993, 65 per cent of agricultural land was degraded, including 3.2 million km² (25 per cent) of Africa’s susceptible drylands (arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas)^[106]. Chapter 3 presents a recent assessment of land degradation, based on the last 25-year trend in biomass production (from satellite measurements) per unit of rainfall (see Figure 3.6 in Chapter 3). The most common processes of land degradation in Africa are soil erosion, soil nutrient depletion, contamination of soils and salinization.

Soil erosion

Soil erosion is now widespread in Africa, affecting food production and food security. (Credit: Christian Lambrechts)

The Brundtland Commission warned that 5.4 million km² of fertile land would be affected by soil erosion in Africa and Asia unless adequate conservation measures were taken^[107]. Soil erosion is now widespread in Africa (see Chapter 3). For example, half of Rwanda’s farmland is moderately to severely eroded, with two-thirds of the soil classified as acidic and exhausted^[108].

Despite the reduced productivity of eroded soil, many African farmers are forced to continuously use the same land because of factors such as population pressure, inequitable land ownership and poor land-use planning. There is a strong relationship between population density and soil erosion. The estimated per capita productive land available in Central and Eastern Africa varies from a low of 0.69 ha in the Democratic Republic of Congo, to 0.75 ha in Burundi, 0.85 in Ethiopia, 0.88 in Uganda, 0.89 in Cameroon, 0.90 in Rwanda, 1.12 ha in the Central African Republic, 1.15 in Congo and 2.06 in Gabon^[109].

Coastal erosion, resulting from beachfront developments, and the mining of sand, coral and lime, is also worsening, with erosion rates as high as 30 metres/year in Western Africa, mainly in Togo and Benin^[110].

Salinization

While irrigation could provide some of the impetus towards a Green Revolution in Africa, inefficient application could lead to land degradation due to salinization. About 647,000 km², or 2.7 per cent of Africa’s total land area is affected by salinization, representing over 26 per cent of the world’s salinized land area (see Table 6.2)^[111].

Desertification

At present, almost half of Africa’s land area is vulnerable to desertification. Africa’s drylands are unevenly distributed across the region, and some are even found in the usually wet tropical zones of Central and Eastern Africa (see Chapter 3). Across Africa, drylands occupy 43 per cent of the region^[112]. Areas most affected by desertification (defined as land degradation in susceptible drylands) are located in the Sudano-Sahelian region and Southern Africa. The area along the desert margins, which occupies about 5 per cent of Africa’s land, is at the highest risk of desertification^[113]. Areas particularly at risk include the Sahel, a band of semi-arid lands stretching along the southern margin of the Sahara Desert, and some nations that consist entirely of drylands, such as Botswana and Eritrea.

Land degradation impacts

Table 6.2 African countries with 5 percent of more of their land affected by salinization.^[9]

Land degradation is the biggest threat to realizing the region’s full potential from land. It undermines soil fertility, and, especially in the drylands, it can cause productivity losses of as much as 50 per cent^[114]. The decline in land quality causes economic stresses, and affects biodiversity through impacts on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and on fishery resources. The degradation also reduces water availability and quality, and can alter the flows of rivers, all leading to serious downstream consequences. The process is closely linked to poverty, which is both a cause and a consequence of land degradation. Poor people are forced to put immediate needs before the long-term quality of the land. The ensuing social, economic and political tensions can create conflicts, more impoverishment and increased land degradation, and force people to seek new homes and livelihoods^[115]. Also dust storms are considered by some as an impact of land degradation, while in fact such storms are mainly natural processes that build up in desert areas (see Box 6.4).

Box 6.4 Deserts and dust

Sandstorm in Gao, Mali. (Credit: BIOS Crocetta Tony/Still Pictires) Storms can transport fine sand and dust over large areas, having both positive (fertilizer) and negative (small particles) impacts on ecosystems and human health regionally and globally. As described in Chapter 3, some 90 per cent of such dust originates from natural processes in true deserts in Africa and Asia.

Food security and poverty

In Africa, the proportion of people living below the poverty line increased from 47.6 per cent in 1985 to 59 per cent in 2000^[116]. Some 313 million Africans lived on less than US$1 per day in 2005^[117]. As a result of poverty, more people in Africa have limited access not only to food, but also to potable water, minimum health care and education. Poverty is exacerbated by extensive use of degraded land, or soils of poor fertility. Unless the land is rehabilitated, both degradation and poverty deepen.

Food insecurity and reduced caloric intake are the major socio-economic impacts of land degradation. Declining soil fertility causes average yield losses of as much as 8 per cent^[118]. With the relatively high share of the agricultural sector in Africa’s GDP, as much as 34 per cent in Eastern Africa, it is estimated that land degradation can lead to an annual loss of 3 per cent of agriculture’s contribution to GDP in sub-Saharan Africa. In Ethiopia alone, GDP loss from reduced agricultural productivity is estimated at US$130 million/year^[119]. While global per capita food production has risen by over 20 per cent since 1960, it has been falling steadily in Africa, declining by 12 per cent since 1981^[120].

The region’s food insecurity is due to a number of factors, including unfavourable weather, land degradation, poverty, conflict and civil strife, HIV/AIDS, low soil fertility, and pests. The proportion of undernourished individuals in sub-Saharan Africa has, on average, fallen from 35 per cent in 1990 to 32 per cent in 2003, but the absolute number of undernourished people increased, from about 120 million around 1980 to some 180 million around 1990 to 206 million in 2003^[121]. As such, Africa is the only region in the world where the need for food aid is increasing (see Figure 6.9). In 2004, 40 countries in sub-Saharan Africa received almost 3.9 million tonnes of food aid (52 per cent of global aid)^[122], compared to an annual average of just over 2 million tonnes received during the period 1995–1997^[123] (see Box 6.5).

Box 6.5 Food aid

Fig 6.9 Countries in crisis requiring external food assistance (October 2006).[10] As a result of inadequate food production, Africa spends US$15–20 billion on food imports annually, in addition to receiving US$2 billion/year in food aid. The World Food Programme, which accounts for 40 per cent of international food aid, has spent US$12.5 billion, 45 per cent of its total investment since its establishment, in Africa. These are vast amounts of money, which could be used to revitalize agriculture through measures such as the provision of agricultural inputs and the rehabilitation of degraded land.

Genetic modification (GM) technology has the potential to improve the yields and quality of food crops, as well as to create resistance to diseases, such as the damaging cassava virus in Western Africa. However, GM technology is controversial, since genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have not been fully tested for environmental or health effects. Many African countries have been declining GM food aid because of such concerns, despite the fact that many of them experience food shortages. The region has 810,000 km² under GMOs^[124], mainly in South Africa.

Agricultural production in many African countries is projected to be severely compromised due to climate variability and change. The area suitable for agriculture, the length of growing seasons and yield potential, particularly along the margins of semi-arid and arid areas, are expected to decrease. This would further adversely affect food security and exacerbate malnutrition in the region. In some countries, yields from rain-fed agriculture could be reduced by up to 50 per cent by 2020^[125].

Environmental impacts

Land degradation threatens tropical forests, rangelands and other ecosystems. For example, the drylands of Eastern and Southern Africa are particularly vulnerable to vegetation loss, and savannahs are at a very high risk of land degradation. The impacts include loss of biodiversity, rapid loss of land cover, and depletion of water availability through destruction of catchments and aquifers. Increased siltation fills up dams, and leads to flooding in rivers and estuaries. In Sudan, for example, the total capacity of the Roseires reservoir, which generates 80 per cent of the country’s electricity, fell by 40 per cent in 30 years, due to siltation of the Blue Nile^[126].

As a result of habitat loss due to land degradation, four antelope species in Lesotho and Swaziland, the blue wildebeest in Malawi, the Tssessebe in Mozambique, the blue buck from the southwestern Cape in South Africa and the kob in Tanzania are threatened with extinction. In Mauritania, an estimated 23 per cent of the mammals are at risk of extinction^[127]. In Western and Central Africa, endangered timber trees and plants include the rock elm (Milicia excelsa), prickly ash bark (Zanthoxylum americanum) and African oil palm (Brucea guineensis). Endangered mammals include the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), Senegal hartebeest (Alcelaphus bucelaphus), elephants (Loxodanta africana) and one of the three manatee species (Trichechus senegalensis). In Eritrea alone, 22 plant species are reportedly threatened with extinction^[128].

Land degradation affects important ecosystems, such as wetlands, causing loss of habitat for birds (see Box 6.6). Wetland degradation also reduces ecosystem functions, such as flood regulation. Wetland loss in Africa is significant and critical but not well documented; 90 per cent of wetlands in the Tugela Basin in South Africa have reportedly been lost, while in the Mfolozi catchment, also in South Africa, 58 per cent (502 km²) of the wetland area has been degraded. In Tunisia’s Medjerdah catchment, 84 per cent of the wetland area has vanished^[129].

Box 6.6 Wetland conversion and the endangered wattled crane[130]

(Credit: BIOS Courteau Christophe (B)/Still Pictures) Degradation and loss of wetland habitats constitute the most significant threat to the endangered wattled crane, which is endemic to Africa, and ranges across 11 countries, from Ethiopia to South Africa. It is the most wetland-dependent of Africa’s cranes, occurring in the extensive floodplain systems of Southern Africa’s large river basins, especially the Zambezi and Okavango. Intensified agriculture, overgrazing, industrialization and other pressures on wetlands have contributed to its decline, especially in South Africa and Zimbabwe.

Land degradation is also rampant along Africa’s 40,000 km coastline^[131]. Mining of sand, gravel and limestone from estuaries, beaches or the nearshore continental shelf is common in Africa’s coastal states and islands. Sand and gravel mining in coastal rivers and estuaries in particular tends to diminish the amount of fluvial sediment input to the coastline, accelerating shoreline retreat. Dredging of sand from the inner continental shelf is an obvious cause of beach erosion in Africa. This problem has been documented in Benin, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Mauritius, Tanzania, Togo, Kenya, the Seychelles and Mozambique^[132]. Coastal erosion is also influenced by the modification of stream flows through river impoundments, which, in turn, cause habitat change in estuaries (See Box 6.7).

Land degradation in coastal zones is associated with the development of coastal settlements. Coastal towns are by far the most developed of Africa’s urban areas and, by implication, the concentration of residential, industrial, commercial, agricultural, educational and military facilities in coastal zones is high. Major coastal cities include Abidjan, Accra, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Djibouti, Durban, Freetown, Lagos, Libreville, Lome, Luanda, Maputo, Mombasa, Port Louis and Tunis.

Changes in a variety of ecosystems are already being detected at a faster rate than anticipated due to climate change. This is particularly the case in Southern Africa. Climate change, interacting with human drivers such as deforestation and forest fires are a threat to Africa’s ecosystems. It is estimated that, by the 2080s, the proportion of arid and semi-arid lands in Africa is likely to increase by 5-8 per cent^[134]. Climate change will also aggravate the water stress currently faced by some countries, while some that currently do not experience water stress will be at greater risk of water stress.

Conflict

Land degradation in Africa is also linked to civil conflicts, such as in the Darfur region of Sudan, where the clearing of tree cover around water points has degraded the land since 1986^[135]. In Darfur, rainfall has declined steadily over the last 30 years, with negative impacts on farming communities and pastoralists. The resultant land degradation has forced many to migrate southwards, leading to conflict with farming communities where they settle^[136]. In countries that recently emerged from wars, such as Angola, land mines prevent the use of land for productive purposes, such as agriculture.

Addressing land degradation

Addressing the issue of land degradation is key to helping Africa reduce poverty, and achieve some of its targets as set out under the Millennium Development Goals. Although policy shortcomings still exist, Box 6.8 lists some of the promising regional policy initiatives that address land degradation.

Efforts to stop land degradation include integrated crop and land management programmes that seek to provide tangible, short-term benefits to farmers, such as increased yields and reduced risks. Efforts, though localized, include water harvesting,