Nanoparticles

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 11:26:44 GMT

Currently, nanoparticles are defined by an upper particle size limit of 100 nanometers (or up to 100 billionths of a meter). This definition may change as there are some scientists who that argue the designation of "nanoparticle" should apply to particles nearly half that size. Much of the interest in development of nanomaterials relates directly to the novel physical, chemical and biological properties associated with these materials in comparison to their larger (that is, bulk) or smaller (that is, single-atom) counterparts.

All particles (including nanoparticles) may differ in conductivity, strength and reflectivity—among other characteristics. For example titanium dioxide (TiO₂) a common ingredient in sunscreen products appears opaque white on the skin when in bulk form—as it reflects not only harmful ultraviolet rays but also visible light. Yet, nanosized TiO₂ in newer sunscreen formulations allows visible light to pass through (that is, appearing clear)—while still scattering harmful ultraviolet rays.

Dr. Richard Feynman, the Nobel Prize winning physicist, envisioned the technological potential of the very small in his 1959 speech, <em>There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom</em></span>. In it he foresaw a version of the Encyclopedia Britannica that could fit on the head of a pin. The necessary technological breakthrough followed twenty years later, when Eric Drexler pioneered “molecular manufacturing". He introduced the term nanotechnology to describe the act of engineering materials on a very small scale. Since then, nanotechnology, and the production of nanomaterials and nanoparticles has blossomed. By some estimates, nanotechnology is now a billion-dollar field globally, involving both government and industry dollars and it is growing. While the promise of nanotechnology includes both environmental and health applications including:

more effective drug delivery;
potential applications for solar-derived power;
reduced use of industrial chemicals; and
improved environmental cleanup methods.

Since such nanotechnology-based applications and formulations are so new, the potential toxicity of any specific nanomaterial in either humans or ecosystems is of concern to researchers, government, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), industry and consumers around the globe.\While human manipulation of nanoparticles is considered a relatively new technology, nanoparticles or ultrafine particles have existed in our atmosphere for eons—produced in a number of ways including fires, volcanoes and sea spray. More recently, human-made sources including vehicular traffic and industrial emissions have added to the suite of nano-sized particles in all environmental media.

Types of Nanoparticles

To date, there are several categories of nanoparticles, including:

Carbon-based nanomaterials including fullerenes (that is, cage-like carbon structures);
single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT) in the shape of a tube (or they may be cage-like); and
buckyballs (60 carbons in the shape of a sphere).

Metal-based nanomaterials include quantum dots, metal oxides and pure metal nanoparticles. Quantum dots are structures so small that their properties are susceptible to the removal of a single electron. Every living creature depends on a kind of quantum dot for energy production, as electrons are moved around by proteins so the cell can store or use energy. Manufactured quantum dots can contain a small number of atoms, for example, from tens of atoms to a few hundred. Some manufactured quantum dots are nanosized crystals of various elements—(silicon and germanium or cadmium and selenium are examples), and they emit light when excited. What is most interesting about this is that the color of the light, based on its wavelength, will vary with the size of the nanosized crystal or the type of crystal. Smaller particles of a particular crystal emit light of shorter wavelengths (towards the blue end of the visible light spectrum) and larger particles emit light of longer wavelengths (towards the red end). Titanium dioxide is another example of a metal oxide now manufactured as a nano-metal oxide. Metals can also exist as single ions, or larger bulkier structures—gold or silver nanoparticles, for example. But, as with many nanomaterials, it seems that when metals occur as nanoparticles they may exhibit different properties than their larger counterparts. Nanoized silver (or silver ions), for example, is a potent antimicrobial agent; apparently aggregates of silver particles tend to lose their antimicrobial ability.Dendrimers are branched polymers. Polymers are made up of repeating units or monomers. Monomers are molecules that can combine—or polymerize—with similar or identical molecules. These can be manufactured so that they can carry other molecules within themselves—For example, certain drugs.Composites refer to combinations of nanomaterials with other materials. For example, DNA molecules may be combined with various nanomaterials to make a nanosized biocomposite.

Health and Environmental Impacts

While development of human-made nanomaterials is new, scientists have been aware of the potential dangers of very small particles, particularly airborne particulates. The most recent studies suggest that ultrafine particles, those that are 100nm or smaller, cause the greatest harm to the lungs. In general, as particle size gets smaller the toxicity increases, in part because of increased surface or reactive area, and in part because the behavior of the chemical in the environment or in living systems might change. For example, nano-sized forms of chemicals that normally would not be able to cross into the brain (blocked by what is know as the blood-brain-barrier,) might be able to penetrate and gain access more easily. Similarly nano-sized particles may act differently in the environment. Perhaps becoming more easily dispersed than their counterparts, or just the opposite, sinking into sediments or settling on soils, making them more likely to be ingested by marine creatures able to strip chemicals from sediment and soil particles. Scientists, regulators, and manufacturers around the globe are currently working to identify high-priority research goals that will enable health and environmental researchers to more efficiently measure, test and evaluate benefits and risks posed by these new materials. However, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recently decided that for chemicals already registered under their Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Chemical Substance Inventory (TSCA is the law enacted to protect humans and the environment from industrial pollution), nano-formulations of existing compounds (nanoized titanium dioxide for example) will not require new registration (or registration as a new chemical). Instead, they ask for voluntary submission of health and toxicity data by manufacturers and users of nanomatierals.

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Uncertainty Guidance Note for the Fourth Assessment Report

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 01:54:34 GMT

Originally published by our Content Partner: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (other articles)

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Annex 4

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 01:53:12 GMT

Originally published by our Content Partner: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (other articles)

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Annex 3

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 01:52:27 GMT

Originally published by our Content Partner: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (other articles)

Reviewers of the IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report

Expert reviewers are listed by country. Experts from international organizations are listed at the end.

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Annex 2

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 01:51:25 GMT

Originally published by our Content Partner: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (other articles)

Contributors to the IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report

Coordinating lead authors, lead authors, and contributing authors are listed alphabetically by surname.

ACHUTARAO, Krishna

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; USA

ADLER, Robert

National Aeronautics and Space Administration; USA

ALEXANDER, Lisa

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK, Australia, Ireland

ALEXANDERSSON, Hans

Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute; Sweden

ALLAN, Richard

Environmental Systems Science Centre, University of Reading; UK

ALLEN, Myles

Climate Dynamics Group, Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics, Department of Physics, University of Oxford; UK

ALLEY, Richard B.

Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University; USA

ALLISON, Ian

Australian Antarctic Division and Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre; Australia

AMBENJE, Peter

Kenya Meteorological Department; Kenya

AMMANN, Caspar

Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

ANDRONOVA, Natalia

University of Michigan; USA

ANNAN, James

Frontier Research Center for Global Change, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology; Japan, UK

ANTONOV, John

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA, Russian Federation

ARBLASTER, Julie

National Center for Atmospheric Research and Bureau of Meteotology Research Center; USA, Australia

ARCHER, David

University of Chicago; USA

ARORA, Vivek

Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, Environment Canada; Canada

ARRITT, Raymond

Iowa State University; USA

ARTALE, Vincenzo

Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and the Environment (ENEA); Italy

ARTAXO, Paulo

Instituto de Fisica, Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brazil

AUER, Ingeborg

Central Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics; Austria

AUSTIN, John

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory; USA

BAEDE, Alphonsus

Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI) and Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment; Netherlands

BAKER, David

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

BALDWIN, Mark P.

Northwest Research Associates; USA

BARNOLA, Jean-Marc

Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l’Environnement; France

BARRY, Roger

National Snow and Ice Data Center, University of Colorado; USA

BATES, Nicholas Robert

Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences; Bermuda

BAUER, Eva

Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research; Germany

BENESTAD, Rasmus

Norwegian Meteorological Institute; Norway

BENISTON, Martin

University of Geneva; Switzerland

BERGER, André

Université catholique de Louvain, Institut d’Astronomie et de Géophysique G. Lemaitre; Belgium

BERNTSEN, Terje

Centre for International Climate and Environmantal Research (CICERO); Norway

BERRY, Joseph A.

Carnegie Institute of Washington, Department of Global Ecology; USA

BETTS, Richard A.

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

BIERCAMP, Joachim

Deutsches Klimarechenzentrum GmbH; Germany

BINDOFF, Nathaniel L.

Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre and CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research; Australia

BITZ, Cecilia

University of Washington; USA

BLATTER, Heinz

Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zurich; Switzerland

BODEKER, Greg

National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research; New Zealand

BOJARIU, Roxana

National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology (NIMH); Romania

BONAN, Gordon

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

BONFILS, Cèline

School of Natural Sciences, Univerity of California, Merced; USA, France

BONY, Sandrine

Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace; France

BOONE, Aaron

CNRS CNRM at Meteo France; France, USA

BOONPRAGOB, Kansri

Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ramkhamhaeng University; Thailand

BOUCHER, Olivier

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK, France

BOUSQUET, Philippe

Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France

BOX, Jason

Ohio State University; USA

BOYER, Tim

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

BRACONNOT, Pascale

Pascale Braconnot Institu Pierre Simon Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France

BRADY, Esther

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

BRASSEUR, Guy

Earth and Sun Systems Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA, Germany

BRETHERTON, Christopher

Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington; USA

BRIFFA, Keith R.

Climatic Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia; UK

BROCCOLI, Anthony J.

Rutgers University; USA

BROCKMANN, Patrick

Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France

BROMWICH, David

Byrd Polar Research Center, The Ohio State University; USA

BROVKIN, Victor

Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research; Germany, Russian Federation

BROWN, Ross

Environment Canada; Canada

BUJA, Lawrence

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

BUSUIOC, Aristita

National Meteorological Administration; Romania

CADULE, Patricia

Institut Pierre Simon Laplace; France

CAI, Wenju

CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research; Australia

CAMILLONI, Inés

Universidad de Buenos Aires, Cwentro de Investigaciones del Mar y la Atmósfera; Argentina

CANADELL, Josep

Global Carbon Project, CSIRO; Australia

CARRASCO, Jorge

Direccion Meteorologica de Chile and Centro de Estudios Cientifi cos; Chile

CASSOU, Christophe

Centre National de Recherche Scientifi que, Centre Europeen de Recherche et de Formation Avancee en Calcul Scientifi que; France

CAYA, Daniel

Consortium Ouranos; Canada

CAYAN, Daniel R.

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego; USA

CAZENAVE, Anny

Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiale (LEGOS), CNES; France

CHAMBERS, Don

Center for Space Research, The University of Texas at Austin; USA

CHANDLER, Mark

Columbia University and NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies; USA

CHANG, Edmund K.M.

Stony Brook University, State University of New York; USA

CHAO, Ben

NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies; USA

CHEN, Anthony

Department of Physics, University of the West Indies; Jamaica

CHEN, Zhenlin

Dept of International Cooperation, China Meteorological Administration; China

CHIDTHAISONG, Amnat

The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi; Thailand

CHRISTENSEN, Jens Hesselbjerg

Danish Meteorological Institute; Denmark

CHRISTIAN, James

Fisheries and Oceans, Candian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis; Canada

CHRISTY, John

University of Alabama in Huntsville; USA

CHURCH, John

CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre; Australia

CIAIS, Philippe

Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France

CLARK, Deborah A.

University of Missouri, St. Louis; USA

CLARKE, Garry

Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia; Canada

CLAUSSEN, Martin

Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research; Germany

CLEMENT, Amy

University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science; USA

COGLEY, J. Graham

Department of Geography, Trent University; Canada

COLE, Julia

University of Arizona; USA

COLLIER, Mark

CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research; Australia

COLLINS, Matthew

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

COLLINS, William D.

Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

COLMAN, Robert

Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre; Australia

COMISO, Josefino

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center; USA

CONWAY, Thomas J.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory; USA

COOK, Edward

Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory; USA

CORTIJO, Elsa

Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement, CNRS-CEA-UVSQ; France

COVEY, Curt

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; USA

COX, Peter M.

School of Engineering, Computer Science and Mathematics, University of Exeter; UK

CROOKS, Simon

University of Oxford; UK

CUBASCH, Ulrich

Institut für Meteorologie, Freie Universität Berlin; Germany

CURRY, Ruth

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; USA

DAI, Aiguo

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

DAMERIS, Martin

German Aerospace Center; Germany

DE ELÍA, Ramón

Ouranos Consortium; Canada, Argentina

DELWORTH, Thomas L.

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

DENMAN, Kenneth L.

Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, Environment Canada and Department of Fisheries and Oceans; Canada

DENTENER, Frank

European Commission Joint Research Centre; Institute of Environment and Sustainability Climate Change Unit; EU

DESER, Clara

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

DETHLOFF, Klaus

Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Research Unit Potsdam; Germany

DIANSKY, Nikolay A.

Institute of Numerical Mathematics, Russian Academy of Sciences; Russian Federation

DICKINSON, Robert E.

School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology; USA

DING, Yihui

National Climate Centre, China Meteorological Administration; China

DIRMEYER, Paul

Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies; USA

DIX, Martin

CSIRO; Australia

DIXON, Keith

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

DLUGOKENCKY, Ed

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory; USA

DOKKEN, Trond

Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research; Norway

DOTZEK, Nikolai

Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre; Germany

DOUTRIAUX, Charles

Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison; USA, France

DRANGE, Helge

Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research; Norway

DRIESSCHAERT, Emmanuelle

Université catholique de Louvain, Institut d’Astronomie et de Géophysique G. Lemaitre; Belgium

DUFRESNE, Jean-Louis

Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace; France

DUPLESSY, Jean-Claude

Centre National dela Recerche Scientifique, Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France

DYURGEROV, Mark

Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado at Boulder & Department of Geograpy and Quaternary Geology at Stockholm; Sweden, USA

EASTERLING, David

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory; USA

EBY, Michael

University of Victoria; Canada

EDWARDS, Neil R.

The Open University; UK

ELKINS, James W.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory; USA

EMERSON, Steven

School of Oceanography, University of Washington; USA

EMORI, Seita

National Institute for Environmental Studies and Frontier Research Center for Global Change, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology; Japan

ETHERIDGE, David

CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research; Australia

EYRING, Veronika

Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre; Germany

FAHEY, David W.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Earth System; Research Laboratory; USA

FASULLO, John

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

FEDDEMA, Johannes

University of Kansas; USA

FEELY, Richard

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory; USA

FEICHTER, Johann

Max Planck Institute for Meteorology; Germany

FICHEFET, Thierry

Université catholique de Louvain, Institut d’Astronomie et de Géophysique G. Lemaitre; Belgium

FITZHARRIS, Blair

Department of Geography, University of Otago; New Zealand

FLATO, Gregory

Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, Environment Canada; Canada

FLEITMANN, Dominik

Institute of Geological Sciences, Uniersity of Bern; Switzerland, Germany

FLEMING, James Rodger

Colby College; USA

FOGT, Ryan

Polar Meteorology Group, Byrd Polar Research Center and Atmospheric Sciences Program, Department of Geography, The Ohio State University; USA

FOLLAND, Christopher

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

FOREST, Chris

Massachusetts Institute of Technology; USA

FORSTER, Piers

School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds; UK

FOUKAL, Peter

Heliophysics, Inc.; USA

FRASER, Paul

CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research; Australia

FRAUENFELD, Oliver

National Snow and Ice Data Center, University of Colorado at Boulder; USA, Austria

FREE, Melissa

Air Resources Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

FREI, Allan

Hunter College, City University of New York; USA

FREI, Christoph

Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss; Switzerland

FRICKER, Helen

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego; USA

FRIEDLINGSTEIN, Pierre

Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France, Belgium

FU, Congbin

Start Regional Center for Temperate East Asia, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Science; China

FUJII, Yoshiyuki

Arctic Environment Research Center, National Institute of Polar Research; Japan

FUNG, Inez

University of California, Berkeley; USA

FURRER, Reinhard

Colorado School of Mines; USA, Switzerland

FUZZI, Sandro

National Research Council, Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate; Italy

FYFE, John

Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, Environment Canada; Canada

GANOPOLSKI, Andrey

Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research; Germany

GAO, Xuejie

Laboratory for Climate Change, National Climate Centre, China Meteorological Administration; China

GARCIA, Hernan

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Oceanographic Data Center; USA

GARCÍA-HERRERA, Ricardo

Universidad Complutense de Madrid; Spain

GAYE, Amadou Thierno

Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics, ESP/CAD, Dakar University; Senegal

GELLER, Marvin

Stony Brook University; USA

GENT, Peter

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

GERDES, Rüdiger

Alfred-Wegener-Institute für Polar und Meeresforschung; Germany

GILLETT, Nathan P.

Climatic Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia; UK

GIORGI, Filippo

Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics; Italy

GLEASON, Byron

National Climatic Data Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

GLECKLER, Peter

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; USA

GONG, Sunling

Air Quality Researcch Division, Science & Technology Branch, Environment Canada; Canada

GONZÁLEZ-DAVÍLA, Melchor

University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria; Spain

GONZÁLEZ-ROUCO, Jesus Fidel

Universidad Complutense de Madrid; Spain

GOOSSE, Hugues

Université catholique de Louvain; Belgium

GRAHAM, Richard

Hadley Centre, Met Office; UK

GREGORY, Jonathan M.

Department of Meteorology, University of Reading and Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

GRIESER, Jürgen

Deutscher Wetterdienst, Global Precipitatioin Climatology Centre; Germany

GRIGGS, David

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

GROISMAN, Pavel

University Corporation for Atmospheric Research at the National Climatic Data Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA, Russian Federation

GRUBER, Nicolas

Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, University of California, Los Angeles and Department of Environmental Sciences, ETH Zurich; USA, Switzerland

GUDGEL, Richard

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

GUDMUNDSSON, G. Hilmar

British Antarctic Survey; UK, Iceland

GUENTHER, Alex

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

GULEV, Sergey

P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanography; Russian Federation

GURNEY, Kevin

Department of Earth and Atmospheric Science, Purdue University; USA

GUTOWSKI, William

Iowa State University; USA

HAAS, Christian

Alfred Wegener Institute; Germany

HABIBI NOKHANDAN, Majid

National Center for Climatology; Iran

HAGEN, Jon Ove

University of Oslo; Norway

HAIGH, Joanna

Imperial College London; UK

HALL, Alex

Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles; USA

HALLEGATTE, Stéphane

Centre International de Recherche sur l’Environnement et le Developpement, Ecole Nationale des Ponts-et-Chaussées and Centre National de Recherches Meteorologique, Meteo-France; USA, France

HANAWA, Kimio

Physical Oceanography Laboratory, Department of Geophysics, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University; Japan

HANSEN, James

Goddard Institute for Space Studies; USA

HANSSEN-BAUER, Inger

Norwegian Meteorological Institute; Norway

HARRIS, Charles

School of Earth, Ocean and Planetary Science, Cardiff University; UK

HARRIS, Glen

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK, New Zealand

HARVEY, Danny

University of Toronto; Canada

HASUMI, Hiroyasu

Center for Climate System Research, University of Tokyo; Japan

HAUGLUSTAINE, Didier

Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVS; France

HAYWOOD, James

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

HEGERL, Gabriele C.

Division of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Nicholas School for the Environment and Earth Sciences, Duke University; USA, Germany

HEIMANN, Martin

Max-Planck-Institut für Biogeochemie; Germany, Switzerland

HEINZE, Christoph

University of Bergen, Geophysical Institute and Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research; Norway, Germany

HELD, Isaac

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory; USA

HENDERSON-SELLERS, Ann

World Meteorological Organization; Switzerland

HENDON, Henry

Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre; Australia

HEWITSON, Bruce

Department of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, University of Cape Town; South Africa

HINZMAN, Larry

University of Alaska, Fairbanks; USA

HOCK, Regine

Stockholm University; Sweden

HODGES, Kevin

Environmental Systems Science Centre; UK

HOELZLE, Martin

University of Zürich, Department of Geography; Switzerland

HOLLAND, Elisabeth

Atmospheric Chemistry Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR); USA

HOLLAND, Marika

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

HOLTSLAG, Albert A. M.

Wageningen University; Netherlands

HOSKINS, Brian J.

Department of Meteorology, University of Reading; UK

HOUSE, Joanna

Quantifying and Understanding the Earth System Programme, University of Bristol; UK

HU, Aixue

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA, China

HUNKE, Elizabeth

Los Alamos National Laboratory; USA

HURRELL, James

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

HUYBRECHTS, Philippe

Departement Geografi e, Vrije Universiteir Brussel; Belgium

INGRAM, William

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

ISAKSEN, Ketil

Norwegian Meteorological Institute; Norway

ISHII, Masayoshi

Fronteir Research Center for Global Change, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology; Japan

JACOB, Daniel

Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Harvard University; USA, France

JALLOW, Bubu

Department of Water Resources; The Gambia

JANSEN, Eystein

University of Bergen, Department of Earth Sciences and Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research; Norway

JANSSON, Peter

Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University; Sweden

JENKINS, Adrian

British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council; UK

JONES, Andy

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

JONES, Christopher

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

JONES, Colin

Universite du Quebec a Montreal, Canadian Regional Climate Modelling Network; Canada

JONES, Gareth S.

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

JONES, Julie

GKSS Research Centre; Germany, UK

JONES, Philip D.

Climatic Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia; UK

JONES, Richard

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

JOOS, Fortunat

Climate and Environmental Physics, Physics Institute, University of Bern; Switzerland

JOSEY, Simon

National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton; UK

JOUGHIN, Ian

Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington; USA

JOUZEL, Jean

Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ; France

JOYCE, Terrence

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; USA

JUNGCLAUS, Johann H.

Max Planck Institute for Meteorology; Germany

KAGEYAMA, Masa

Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France

KÅLLBERG, Per

European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts; ECMWF

KÄRCHER, Bernd

Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre; Germany

KARL, Thomas R.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center; USA

KAROLY, David J.

University of Oklahoma; USA, Australia

KASER, Georg

Institut für Geographie, University of Innsbruck; Austria, Italy

KATTSOV, Vladimir

Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory; Russian Federation

KATZ, Robert

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

KAWAMIYA, Michio

Frontier Research Center for Global Change, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology; Japan

KEELING, C. David

Scripps Institution of Oceanography; USA

KEELING, Ralph

Scripps Institution of Oceanography; USA

KENNEDY, John

Hadley Centre, Met Office; UK

KENYON, Jesse

Duke University; USA

KETTLEBOROUGH, Jamie

British Atmospheric Data Centre, Space Science and Technology Department, Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils; UK

KHARIN, Viatcheslar

Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, Environment Canada; Canada

KHODRI, Myriam

Institut de Recherche Pour le Developpement; France

KILADIS, George

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

KIM, Kuh

Seoul National University; Republic of Korea

KIMOTO, Masahide

Center for Climate System Research, University of Tokyo; Japan

KING, Brian

National Oceanography Centre, Southampton; UK

KINNE, Stefan

Max-Planck Institute for Meteorology; Germany

KIRTMAN, Ben

Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies, George Mason University; USA

KITOH, Akio

First Research Laboratory, Climate Research Department, Meteorological Research Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency; Japan

KLEIN, Stephen A.

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; USA

KLEIN TANK, Albert

Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI); Netherlands

KNUTSON, Thomas

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

KNUTTI, Reto

Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research; Switzerland

KOERTZINGER, Arne

Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften an der Universitat Kiel and Institut fur Ostseeforschung Warnemunde; Germany

KOIKE, Toshio

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Tokyo; Japan

KOLLI, Rupa Kumar

Climatology and Hydrometeorology Division, Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology; India

KOSTER, Randal

National Aeronautics and Space Administration; USA

KOTTMEIER, Christoph

Institut für Meteorologie, und Klimaforschung, Universitat Karlsruhe/Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe; Germany

KRIPALANI, Ramesh

Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology; India

KRYNYTZKY, Marta

University of Washington; USA

KUNKEL, Kenneth

Illinois State Water Survey; USA

KUSHNER, Paul J.

Department of Physics, University of Toronto; Canada

KWOK, Ron

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology; USA

KWON, Won-Tae

Climate Research Laboratory, Meteorological Research Institute (METRI), Korean Meteorological Administration; Republic of Korea

LABEYRIE, Laurent

Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France

LAINE, Alexandre

Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France

LAM, Chiu-Ying

Hong Kong Observatory; China

LAMBECK, Kurt

Australia National University; Australia

LAMBERT, F. Hugo

Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics, University of Oxford; UK

LANZANTE, John

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

LAPRISE, René

Deprtement des Sciences de la Terra et de l’Atmosphere, University of Quebec at Montreal; Canada

LASSEY, Keith

National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research; New Zealand

LATIF, Mojib

Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, IFM-GEOMAR; Germany

LAU, Ngar-Cheung

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

LAVAL, Katia

Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique du CNRS; France

LAVINE, Michael

Duke University; USA

LAWRENCE, David

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

LAWRIMORE, Jay

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center; USA

LAXON, Seymour

Centre for Polar Observation and Modelling, University College London; UK

LE BROCQ, Anne

Centre for Polar Observation and Modelling, University of Bristol; UK

LE QUÉRÉ, Corrine

University of East Anglia and British Antarctic Survey; UK, France, Canada

LE TREUT, Hervé

Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique du CNRS; France

LEAN, Judith

Naval Research Laboratory; USA

LECK, Caroline

Department of Metorology, Stockholm University; Sweden

LEE, Terry C.K.

University of Victoria; Canada

LEE-TAYLOR, Julia

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA, UK

LEFEVRE, Nathalie

Institut de Recherche Pour le Developpement, Laboratoire d’Oceanographie et de Climatologie; France

LEMKE, Peter

Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research; Germany

LEULIETTE, Eric

University of Colorado, Boulder; USA

LEUNG, Ruby

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

LEVERMANN, Anders

Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research; Germany

LEVINSON, David

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center; USA

LEVITUS, Sydney

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

LIE, Øyvind

Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research; Norway

LIEPERT, Beate

Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University; USA

LIU, Shiyin

Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences; China

LOHMANN, Ulrike

ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science; Switzerland

LOUTRE, Marie-France

Université catholique de Louvain, Institut d’Astronomie et de Géophysique G. Lemaitre; Belgium

LOWE, David C.

National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research; New Zealand

LOWE, Jason

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

LUO, Yong

Laboratory for Climate Change, National Climate Centre, China Meteorological Administration; China

LUTERBACHER, Jürg

Institute of Geography, Climatology and Meteorology, and National Centre of Competence in Research on Climate, University of Bern; Switzerland

LYNCH, Amanda H.

School of Geography and Environmental Science, Monash University; Australia

MACAYEAL, Douglas

University of Chicago; USA

MACCRACKEN, Michael

Climate Institute; USA

MAGAÑA RUEDA, Victor

Centro de Ciencias de la Atmósfera, Ciudad Universitaria, Universidad Nacional Autonomia de Mexico; Mexico

MALHI, Yadvinder

University of Oxford; UK

MALANOTTE-RIZZOLI, Paola

Massachusetts Institute of Technology; USA, Italy

MANNING, Andrew C.

University of East Anglia; UK, New Zealand

MANNING, Martin

IPCC WGI TSU, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory; USA, New Zealand

MANZINI, Elisa

National Institute for Geophysics and Volcanology; Italy

MARENGO ORSINI, Jose Antonio

CPTEC/INPE; Brazil, Peru

MARSH, Robert

National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton; UK

MARSHALL, Gareth

British Antarctic Survey; UK

MARTELO, Maria

Ministerio del Ambiente y los Rcursos Naturales, Dir. de Hidrologia y Meteorologia; Venezuela

MASARIE , Ken

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division; USA

MASSON-DELMOTTE, Valérie

Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France

MATSUMOTO, Katsumi

University of Minnesota, Twin Cities; USA

MATSUNO, Taroh

Frontier Research Center for Global Change, Japan Agency for Marine- Earth Science and Technology; Japan

MATTHEWS, H. Damon

University of Calgary and Concordia University; Canada

MATULLA, Christoph

Environment Canada; Canada, Austria

MAURITZEN, Cecilie

Norwegian Meteorological Institute; Norway

MCAVANEY, Bryant

Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre; Australia

MCFIGGANS, Gordon

University of Manchester; UK

MCINNES, Kathleen

CSIRO, Marine and Atmospheric Chemistry Research; Australia

MCPHADEN, Michael

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

MEARNS, Linda

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

MEARS, Carl

Remote Sensing Systems; USA

MEEHL, Gerald A.

Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

MEINSHAUSEN, Malte

Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research; Germany

MELLING, Humphrey

Fisheries and Oceans Canada; Canada

MENÉNDEZ, Claudio Guillermo

Centro de Investigaciones del Mar y de la Atmósfera, (CONICET-UBA); Argentina

MENON, Surabi

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; USA

MESCHERSKAYA, Anna V.

Russian Federation

MILLER, John B.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

MILLOT, Claude

Centre National dela Recherche Scientifique; France

MILLY, Chris

United States Geological Survey; USA

MITCHELL, John

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

MOKSSIT, Abdalah

Direction de la météorologie Nationale; Morocco

MOLINA, Mario

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego; USA, Mexico

MOLINARI, Robert

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory; USA

MONAHAN, Adam H.

School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of Victoria; Canada

MONNIN, Eric

Climate and Environmental Physics, Physics Institute, University of Bern; Switzerland

MONTZKA, Steve

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

MOSLEY-THOMPSON, Ellen

Ohio State University; USA

MOTE, Philip

Climate Impacts Group, Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans (JIASO), University of Washington; USA

MUHS, Daniel

United States Geological Survey; USA

MULLAN, A. Brett

National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research; New Zealand

MÜLLER, Simon A.

Climate and Environmental Physics, Physics Institute, University of Bern; Switzerland

MURPHY, James M.

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

MUSCHELER, Raimund

Goddard Earth Sciences and Technology Center, University of Maryland & NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Climate & Radiation Branch; USA

MYHRE, Gunnar

Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo; Norway

NAKAJIMA, Teruyuki

Center for Climate System Research, University of Tokyo; Japan

NAKAMURA, Hisashi

Department of Earth, Planetary Science, University of Tokyo; Japan

NAWRATH, Susanne

Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research; Germany

NEREM, R. Steven

University of Colorado at Boulder; USA

NEW, Mark

Centre for the Environment, University of Oxford; UK

NGANGA, John

University of Nairobi; Kenya

NICHOLLS, Neville

Monash University; Australia

NODA, Akira

Meteorological Research Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency; Japan

NOJIRI, Yukihiro

Secretariat of Council for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office; Japan

NOKHANDAN, Majid Habibi

Iranian Meteorological Organization; Iran

NORRIS, Joel

Scripps Institution of Oceanography; USA

NOZAWA, Toru

National Institute for Environmental Studies; Japan

OERLEMANS, Johannes

Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, Utrecht University; Netherlands

OGALLO, Laban

IGAD Climate Prediction and Application Centre; Kenya

OHMURA, Atsumu

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology; Switzerland

OKI, Taikan

Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo; Japan

OLAGO, Daniel

Department of Geology, University of Nairobi; Kenya

ONO, Tsuneo

Hokkaido National Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research Agency; Japan

OPPENHEIMER, Michael

Princeton University; USA

ORAM, David

University of East Anglia; UK

ORR, James C.

Marine Environment Laboratories, International Atomic Energy Agency; Monaco, USA

OSBORN, Tim

University of East Anglia; UK

O’SHAUGHNESSY, Kath

National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research; New Zealand

OTTO-BLIESNER, Bette

Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

OVERPECK, Jonathan

Institute for the Study of Planet Earth, University of Arizona; USA

PAASCHE, Øyvind

Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research; Norway

PAHLOW, Markus

Dalhousie University, Bedford Institute of Oceanography; Canada

PAL, Jeremy S.

Loyola Marymount University, The Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics; USA, Italy

PALMER, Timothy

European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting; ECMWF, UK

PANT, Govind Ballabh

Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology; India

PARKER, David

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

PARRENIN, Frédéric

Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l’Environnement; France

PAVLOVA, Tatyana

Voeikov Main Geophysical Observatory; Russian Federation

PAYNE, Antony

University of Bristol; UK

PELTIER, W. Richard

Department of Physics, University of Toronto; Canada

PENG, Tsung-Hung

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

PENNER, Joyce E.

Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Space Sciences, University of Michigan; USA

PETERSON, Thomas

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center; USA

PETOUKHOV, Vladimir

Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research; Germany

PEYLIN, Philippe

Laboratoire des Modélisation du Climat et de l’Environnement; France

PFISTER, Christian

University of Bern; Switzerland

PHILLIPS, Thomas

Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; USA

PIERCE, David

Scripps Institution of Oceanography; USA

PIPER, Stephen

Scripps Institution of Oceanography; USA

PITMAN, Andrew

Department of Physical Geography, Macquarie University; Australia

PLANTON, Serge

Météo-France; France

PLATTNER, Gian-Kasper

Climate and Environmental Physics, Physics Institute, University of Bern; Switzerland

PLUMMER, David

Environment Canada; Canada

POLLACK, Henry

University of Michigan; USA

PONATER, Michael

Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre; Germany

POWER, Scott

Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre; Australia

PRATHER, Michael

Earth System Science Department, University of California at Irvine; USA

PRINN, Ronald

Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; USA, New Zealand

PROSHUTINSKY, Andrey

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; USA

PROWSE, Terry

Environment Canada, University of Victoria Canada QIN, Dahe Co-Chair, IPCC WGI, China Meteorological Administration; China

QIU, Bo

University of Hawaii; USA

QUAAS, Johannes

Max Planck Institute for Meteorology; Germany

QUADFASEL, Detlef

Institut für Meereskunde, Centre for Marine and Atmospheric Sciences Hamburg; Germany

RAGA, Graciela

Centro de Ciencias de la Atmósfera, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico; Mexico, Argentina

RAHIMZADEH, Fatemeh

Atmospheric Science & Meteorological Research Center (ASMERC), I.R. of Iran Meteorological Organization (IRIMO); Iran

RAHMSTORF, Stefan

Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research; Germany

RÄISÄNEN, Jouni

Department of Physical Sciences, University of Helsinki; Finland

RAMACHANDRAN, Srikanthan

Space & Atmospheric Sciences Division, Physical Research Laboratory; India

RAMANATHAN, Veerabhadran

Scripps Institution of Oceanography; USA

RAMANKUTTY, Navin

University of Wisconsin, Madison; USA, India

RAMASWAMY, Venkatachalam

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory; USA

RAMESH, Rengaswamy

Physical Research Laboratory; India

RANDALL, David A.

Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University; USA

RAPER, Sarah C.B.

Manchester Metropolitan University; UK

RAUP, Bruce H.

National Snow and Ice Data Center, University of Colorado; USA

RAUPACH, Michael

CSIRO; Australia

RAYMOND, Charles

University of Washington, Department of Earth and Space Sciences; USA

RAYNAUD, Dominique

Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l’Environnement; France

RAYNER, Peter

Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France

REHDER, Gregor

Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften an der Universitat Kiel and Institut fur Ostseeforschung Warnemunde; Germany

REID, George

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

REN, Jiawen

Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences; China

RENSSEN, Hans

Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Netherlands

RENWICK, James A.

National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research; New Zealand

RIEBESELL, Ulf

Leibniz Institute for Marine Sciences, IFM-GEOMAR; Germany

RIGNOT, Eric

Jet Propulsion Laboratory; USA

RIGOR, Ignatius

Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington; USA

RIND, David

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Institute for Space Studies; USA

RINKE, Annette

Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research; Germany

RINTOUL, Stephen

CSIRO, Marine and Atmospheric Research and Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre; Australia

RIXEN, Michel

University of Liege and NATO Undersea Research Center; NATO, Belgium

RIZZOLI, Paola

Massachusetts Institute of Technology; USA, Italy

ROBERTS, Malcolm

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

ROBERTSON, Franklin R.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration; USA

ROBINSON, David

Rutgers University; USA

RÖDENBECK, Christian

Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry Jena; Germany

ROECKNER, Erich

Max Planck Institute for Meteorology; Germany

ROSATI, Anthony

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

ROSENLOF, Karen

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

ROTHROCK, David

University of Washington; USA

ROTSTAYN, Leon

CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research; Australia

ROULET, Nigel

McGill University; Canada

RUMMUKAINEN, Markku

Rossby Centre, Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute; Sweden, Finland

RUSSELL, Gary L.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Institute for Space Studies; USA

RUSTICUCCI, Matilde

Departamento de Ciencias de la Atmósfera y los Océanos, FCEN, Universidad de Buenos Aires; Argentina

SABINE, Christopher

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory; USA

SAHAGIAN, Dork

Lehigh University; USA

SALAS Y MÉLIA, David

Météo-France, Centre National de Recherches Météorologiques; France

SANTER, Ben D.

Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; USA

SARR, Abdoulaye

Service Météorologique, DMN Sénégal; Senegal

SAUSEN, Robert

Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt, Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre; Germany

SCHÄR, Christoph

ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science; Switzerland

SCHERRER, Simon Christian

Federal Offi ce of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss; Switzerland

SCHMIDT, Gavin

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Institute for Space Studies; USA, UK

SCHMITTNER, Andreas

College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University; USA, Germany

SCHNEIDER, Birgit

Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften; Germany

SCHOTT, Friedrich

Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften, IFM-GEOMAR; Germany

SCHULTZ , Martin G.

Max Planck Institute for Meteorology; Germany

SCHULZ, Michael

Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ; France, Germany

SCHWARTZ, Stephen E.

Brookhaven National Laboratory; USA

SCHWARZKOPF, Dan

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

SCINOCCA, John

Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, Environment Canada; Canada

SEIDOV, Dan

Pennsylvania State University; USA

SEMAZZI, Fred H.

North Carolina State University; USA

SENIOR, Catherine

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

SEXTON, David

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Off ce; UK

SHEA, Dennis

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

SHEPHERD, Andrew

School of Geosciences, The University of Ediburgh; UK

SHEPHERD, J. Marshall

University of Georgia, Department of Geography; USA

SHEPHERD, Theodore G.

University of Toronto; Canada

SHERWOOD, Steven

Yale University; USA

SHUKLA, Jagadish

Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies, George Mason University; USA

SHUM, C.K.

Geodetic Science, School of Earth Sciences, The Ohio State University; USA

SIEGMUND, Peter

Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI); Netherlands

SILVA DIAS, Pedro Leite da

Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brazil

SIMMONDS, Ian

University of Melbourne; Australia

SIMMONS, Adrian

European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts; ECMWF, UK

SIROCKO, Frank

University of Mainz; Germany

SLATER, Andrew G.

Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder; USA, Australia

SLINGO, Julia

National Centre for Atmospheric Science, University of Reading; UK

SMITH, Doug

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

SMITH, Sharon

Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada; Canada

SODEN, Brian

University of Miami, Rosentiel School for Marine and Atmospheric Science; USA

SOKOLOV, Andrei

Massachusetts Institute of Technology; USA, Russian Federation

SOLANKI, Sami K.

Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research; Germany, Switzerland

SOLOMINA, Olga

Institute of Geography RAS; Russian Federation

SOLOMON, Susan

Co-Chair, IPCC WGI, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory; USA

SOMERVILLE, Richard

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego; USA

SOMOT, Samuel

Météo-France, Centre National de Recherches Météorologiques; France

SONG, Yuhe

Jet Propulsion Laboratory; USA

SPAHNI, Renato

Climate and Environmental Physics, Physics Institute, University of Bern; Switzerland

SRINIVASAN, Jayaraman

Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Indian Institute of Science; India

STAINFORTH, David

Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics, Department of Physics, University of Oxford; UK

STAMMER, Detlef

Institut fuer Meereskunde Zentrum fuer Meeres und Klimaforschung Universitaet Hamburg; Germany

STANIFORTH, Andrew

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

STARK, Sheila

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

STEFFEN, Will

Australian National University; Australia

STENCHIKOV, Georgiy

Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey; USA

STERN, William

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

STEVENSON, David

University of Edinburgh; UK

STOCKER, Thomas F.

Climate and Environmental Physics, Physics Institute, University of Bern; Switzerland

STONE, Daíthí A.

University of Oxford; UK, Canada

STOTT, Lowell D.

Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California; USA

STOTT, Peter A.

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

STOUFFER, Ronald J.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory; USA

STUBER, Nicola

Department of Meteorology, University of Reading; UK, Germany

SUDO, Kengo

Nagoya University; Japan

SUGA, Toshio

Tohoku University; Japan

SUMI, Akimasa

Center for Climate System Research, University of Tokyo; Japan

SUPPIAH, Ramasamy

CSIRO; Australia

SWEENEY, Colm

Princeton University; USA

TADROSS, Mark

Climate Systems Analysis Group, University of Cape Town; South Africa

TAKEMURA, Toshihiko

Research Institute for Applied Mechanics, Kyushu University; Japan

TALLEY, Lynne D.

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego; USA

TAMISIEA, Mark

Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics; USA

TAYLOR, Karl E.

Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; USA

TEBALDI, Claudia

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

TENG, Haiyan

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA, China

TENNANT, Warren

South African Weather Service; South Africa

TERRAY, Laurent

Eoropean Centre for Research and Advanced Training in Scientific Computation; France

TETT, Simon

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

TEXTOR, Christiane

Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement; France, Germany

THOMAS, Robert H.

EG&G Technical Services, Inc. and Centro de Estudios Cientifi cos (CECS); USA, Chile

THOMPSON, Lonnie

Ohio State University; USA

THORNCROFT, Chris

Department of Earth and Atmospheric Science, University at Albany, SUNY; USA, UK

THORNE, Peter

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

TIAN, Yuhong

Georgia Institute of Technology; USA, China

TRENBERTH, Kevin E.

Climate Analysis Section, National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

TSELIOUDIS, George

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Institute for Space Studies, Columbia University; USA, Greece

TSIMPLIS, Michael

National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton; UK, Greece

UNNIKRISHNAN, Alakkat S.

National Institute of Oceanography; India

UPPALA, Sakari

European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts; ECMWF

VAN DE WAL, Roderik Sylvester Willo

Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, Utrecht University; Netherlands

VAN DORLAND, Robert

Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI); Netherlands

VAN NOIJE, Twan

Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI); Netherlands

VAUGHAN, David

British Antarctic Survey; UK

VILLALBA, Ricardo

Departmento de Dendrocronología e Historia Ambiental, Instituto Argentino de Novologia, Glaciologia y Ciencias Ambientales (IANIGLA - CRICYT); Argentina

VOLODIN, Evgeny M.

Institute of Numerical Mathematics of Russian Academy of Sciences; Russian Federation

VOSE, Russell

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center; USA

WAELBROECK, Claire

Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement, CNRS; France

WALSH, John

University of Alaska; USA

WANG, Bin

National Key Laboratory of Numerical Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences; China

WANG, Bin

University of Hawaii; USA

WANG, Minghuai

Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Space Sciences, University of Michigan; USA

WANG, Ray

Georgia Institute of Technology; USA

WANNINKHOF, Rik

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

WARREN, Stephen

University of Washington; USA

WASHINGTON, Richard

UK, South Africa

WATTERSON, Ian G.

CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research; Australia

WEAVER, Andrew J.

School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of Victoria; Canada

WEBB, Mark

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

WEISHEIMER, Antje

European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting and Free University, Berlin; ECMWF, Germany

WEISS, Ray

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego; USA

WHEELER, Matthew

Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre; Australia

WHETTON, Penny

CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research; Australia

WHORF, Tim

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego; USA

WIDMANN, Martin

GKSS Research Centre, Geesthacht and School of Geography, Earth and Envrionmental Sciences, University of Birmingham; Germany, UK

WIELICKI, Bruce

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center; USA

WIGLEY, Tom M.L.

National Center for Atmospheric Research; USA

WILBY, Rob

Environment Agency of England and Wales; UK

WILD, Martin

ETH Zürich, Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Sciencce; Switzerland

WILD, Oliver

Frontier Research Center for Global Change, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology; Japan, UK

WILES, Gregory

The College of Wooster; USA

WILLEBRAND, Jürgen

Leibniz Institut für Meereswissenschaften an der Universität Kiel; Germany

WILLIS, Josh

Jet Propulsion Laboratory; USA

WOFSY, Steven C.

Division of Engineering and Applied Science, Harvard University; USA

WONG, A.P.S.

School of Oceanography, University of Washington; USA, Australia

WONG, Takmeng

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center; USA

WOOD, Richard A.

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, Met Office; UK

WOODWORTH, Philip

Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory; UK

WORBY, Anthony

Australian Antarctic Division and Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre; Australia

WRATT, David

National Climate Centre, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research; New Zealand

WUERTZ, David

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center; USA

WYMAN, Bruce L.

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; USA

XU, Li

Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Space Sciences, University of Michigan; USA, China

YAMADA, Tomomi

Japanese Society of Snow and Ice; Japan

YASHAYAEV, Igor

Maritimes Region of the Department of Fisheries and Oceans; Canada

YASUDA, Ichiro

University of Tokyo; Japan

YOSHIMURA, Jun

Meteorological Research Institute; Japan

YU, Rucong

China Meteorological Administration; China

YUKIMOTO, Seiji

Meteorological Research Institute; Japan

ZACHOS, James

University of California, Santa Cruz; USA

ZHAI, Panmao

National Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration; China

ZHANG, De’er

National Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration; China

ZHANG, Tingjun

National Snow and Ice Data Center, CIRES, University of Colorado at Boulder; USA, China

ZHANG, Xiaoye

Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Centre for Atmophere Watch & Services; China

ZHANG, Xuebin

Climate Research Division, Environment Canada; Canada

ZHAO, Lin

Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Science; China

ZHAO, Zong-Ci

National Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration; China

ZHENGTENG, Guo

Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Science; China

ZHOU, Liming

Georgia Institute of Technology; USA, China

ZORITA, Eduardo

Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht; Germany, Spain

ZWIERS, Francis

Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis, Environment Canada; Canada

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Chapter 9

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 01:39:56 GMT

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Chapter 7

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 01:34:04 GMT

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Chapter 3

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 01:21:54 GMT

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Chapter 1

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 01:18:53 GMT

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Frequently Asked Questions

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 01:17:14 GMT

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Chapter 2

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 01:09:27 GMT

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Technical Summary

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 00:58:01 GMT

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Front Matter

Sat, 20 Mar 2010 00:53:04 GMT

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Einsteinium

Fri, 19 Mar 2010 10:12:58 GMT

Einsteinium (pronounced ine-STINE-i-em) is a metallic man-made element. On the periodic table, it is represented by the symbol Es and atomic number 99. Einsteinium is the seventh transuranic element, and an actinide. The actinides are the elements found in the last row of the periodic table, having atomic numbers between 89 and 103, and a transuranic element is one that has a higher atomic number than uranium, and is man-made and not found in nature. It was named in honor of Albert Einstein.

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Reviews of the EoE

Thu, 18 Mar 2010 11:55:35 GMT

The Science Teacher

February 2010

The Encyclopedia of Earth
High school teachers and their students require reliable, accessible, and understandable information about nature’s ecosystems and how people interact with them. This is particularly true as we face issues such as climate change, pollution, habitat degradation, and myriad other global and local challenges. Understanding these complex environmental issues requires some basic knowledge of ecology and specific details about the different issues of concern. But where can teachers and students find reliable and useful information on these topics?

Google search results
The development of the internet has opened up new avenues of access to information. In fact, so much information is available that it has become problematic: Internet searches often provide an overwhelming number of links to seemingly relevant sources. For example, Google searches forterms associated with common environmental issues often return millions of entries (Figure 1), but only some of these results are reliable and useful to readers.

No one who wants information about climate change, for example, is going to read all of the 22 million articles produced by a Google search. A simple solution may be to start with the first result listed. Petrilli (2008) found that a Wikipedia article was the first result listed in 87 out of 100 searches and that one of these articles was among the first three results listed 100% of the time. Similarly, when searching environmental terms, a Wikipedia article was listed first 70% of the time and was among the first two articles 100% of the time.

Many teachers caution students about relying on information found on Wikipedia—an online encyclopedia (or wiki) that is written and edited collaboratively by anonymous volunteers from around the world. Wikipedia itself suggests that people “should not use only Wikipedia for primary research” (2009). The popularity of Wikipedia indicates that it can be a useful tool for many purposes, but it may not be the best source for accurate information about the environment.

A reliable resource
For reliable information on the environment written and reviewed by experts, students and teachers can instead turn to the Encyclopedia of Earth (EoE; see “On the web”). Based at Boston University (BU) and operated in partnership with the National Council for Science and the Environment (NCSE), the EoE is a free, fully searchable collection of articles written by scholars, professionals, educators, and experts who review each other’s work using the same collaborative electronic platform as Wikipedia. However—unlike Wikipedia—all EoE articles are written by recognized field experts and are reviewed and approved by qualified topic editors. The EoE is also transparent: All contributors use their real names and all work is tracked and recorded. Authors’ and topic editors’ biographies are available on the site so that readers can see who is producing the information.

The scope of EoE is broadly defined, with particular emphasis on the interaction between society and natural ecosystems. The EoE covers more than 130 topics ranging from agriculture, to resource economics, to zoology. The articles are written in nontechnical language and are intended to be useful to students, educators, scholars, policy makers, professionals, and the general public. The EoE published its first articles in October 2006 and has since grown to include more than 5,000 entries.

Using the EoE
The EoE can be useful to teachers and their students in a variety of ways. The search function makes it easy to find articles related to a particular topic of interest, and all articles contain links to related articles. In addition to individual articles, the EoE also includes special collections on topics ranging from the geography and environments of Africa, to the writings and influence of well-known ecologist Aldo Leopold, to the environmental and social issues in the field of economics. The Ecology Collection, for example, provides the basic information about ecology that students need to place environmental issues in the appropriate context.

The EoE also makes environmental classics available online, including books such as Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859) and Henry Thoreau’s Walden (1854) and articles such as Garrett Hardin’s “The Tragedy of the Commons” (1968). The EoE recently published an online environmental science textbook intended for use in Advanced Placement (AP) Environmental Science classes. High school science teachers may find the EoE helpful when searching for background information to prepare a course section on a particular topic (e.g., biodiversity). They can also refer their students to the EoE as a reliable source for research—and a good alternative to Wikipedia. With so much information available on the internet, it is important to identify particular electronic resources that you trust and can send students to without hesitation. For information on the environment, the EoE is a valuable online resource.

[mailtlo:barakatt@bu.edu Cynthia Barakatt] is director of content development for the Encyclopedia of Earth at Boston University in Massachusetts; [mailto:mark.mcginley@ttu.edu Mark McGinley] is an associate professor in the Honors College and the Department of Biological Sciences at Texas Tech University in Lubbock, an associate editor of the Encyclopedia of Earth, and a member of its editorial board.

On the web
Encyclopedia of Earth

References

Darwin, C. 1859. On the origin of species. United Kingdom: John Murray.
Hardin, G. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science 162 (3859): 1243–1248.
Petrilli, M.J. 2008. Wikipedia or Wickedpedia? Assessing the online encyclopedia’s impact on K–12 education. Education Next 8 (2): 87.
Thoreau, H. 1854.Walden; or, life in the woods. Boston: Ticknor and Fields.
Wikipedia. 2009. Wikipedia: Researching with Wikipedia.

Weekly Dig

Wednesday, August 6, 2008

An encyclopedia on EVERYTHING (environmental)

Anyone who's ever had to sit through the "Wikipedia is not a reliable source" rant knows the frustrations of unreliable information on the internet. Enter the Encyclopedia of Earth (EoE): A new online reference guide to "the Earth, its natural environments and their interactions with society." The entries were written by over 1,000 experts from 60 countries and compiled and content-controlled by an editing staff at Boston University.

"People need to be able to find sources of information on the internet they know they can trust," says Cynthia Barakatt, the EoE's director of content development. "The EoE is a great, reliable source of information on environmental topics that is available to anyone. Our goal is to make environmental information about the Earth and its ecosystems accessible, both in terms of the ability to get to it for free through the internet and to present the information in a way people can understand and use."

The EoE takes material from original peer-reviewed articles (by organizations that allow the EoE to publish their work) and "free and open content sources," such as various government agencies' publications. These sources are edited for length and style, and then added to the site. Currently, there are over 3,500 articles.

Information in the EoE is grouped by topics, ranging from minerals and mining to coral reefs to new energy technologies. Barakatt says that the climate change section is especially comprehensive. "We have many articles and have developed a special collection on the topic, although there are still some areas where we could use more entries, such as the impacts of climate change on oceans and the specifics of how climate change modeling works," she says.

The Encyclopedia is a "wiki," an online community of collaborators who update information, but its editors are quick to point out that it's very different from Wikipedia. Wikipedia is public; anyone can edit any topic, regardless of his or her credentials. The EoE controls its content by using a restricted wiki, and only experts recognized by the program can make changes or additions. The website also includes a section of free ebooks, including Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species and Henry David Thoreau's Walden.

The EoE is online at eoearth.org.

— By Raphael Luckom

___________________________________________________________________________________

GoodCleanTech: The Independent Guide to Ecotechnology

Friday, March 7, 2008

The Encyclopedia of Earth: Our World, Written By Experts

If you're looking for information on the environment, parks and public lands, even on how globalization affects the planet, the Encyclopedia of Earth can help. It's a wiki with 2,000-plus articles authored by more than 700 experts from over 50 countries in dozens of fields. The site prides itself on the quality and credibility of its content and has already amassed a collection of articles, e-books, and other resources. If you're a subject-matter expert, you can even sign up to be an author and contribute to the project.

Articles about the environment, environmental policy, and the climate dominate the Encyclopedia of Earth at the moment, but as more experts sign up to write for the service, more topics will appear. Each topic is made up of dozens of sub-articles, so Zoology, for example, includes articles about Arthropoda and Crustacea. The Human Health topic has sub-articles about everything from antibiotics to indoor air quality to the health effects of Selenium.

The Encyclopedia of Earth makes an excellent research tool if you're studying or just want more information on the environment, the climate, or general earth sciences. Similarly, if you've ever wondered what scientists are talking about when they sling around terms like "dynamic modeling," "environmental ethics," and "sustainable development," the EoE can help break down what sounds like a daunting topic with individual articles that help explain it. The EoE has a community section with forums if you want to join or start a discussion on any of the topics.

The bulk of the articles and topics are submitted and edited by scientists, researchers, and professors from colleges and universities around the world. You'll find results of multi-year research projects and studies posted at the EoE alongside articles about free trade and water shortages in Qatar. Additionally, the site partners with over 45 educational institutions, museums, scientific societies, and other non-profits for additional articles and information.

The goal of the service is to provide a definitive and authoritative reference for environmental information, authored by people who know what they're referencing. The scientists behind the site were tired of scouring Google and other search engines for articles on topics of interest to them only to find sites of dubious scientific merit.

The Encyclopedia of Earth is a part of the Earth Portal, a larger project aimed to provide anyone interested in any information about the planet's environment, history, societies, cultures, and countries. Also, because the project is a non-profit organization built by the National Council for Science and the Environment, Boston University, and the Environmental Information coalition, you can donate to the cause to see the project grow.

Posted By: Alan Henry

____________________________________________________________________________________

CHOICE: Current Reviews for Academic Libraries

2007 Aug 44-6568 Internet Resource

Encyclopedia of Earth
URL: http://www.eoearth.org/

[Visited May'07]

Encyclopedia of Earth (EoE) creates a "pile of great content" out of the Web's "great piles of content." Searching global warming, e.g., yields over 40 million hits on Google, but only around 150 on EoE. Quality content is achieved in three ways: authors who are experts in their fields, content partners who follow strict guidelines for inclusion of appropriate topics (e.g., International Arctic Science Committee), and a thorough editorial process. Produced by the Environmental Information Coalition of the National Council for Science and the Environment, EoE strives for objectivity. It handles controversial topics in a neutral manner, without advocacy or biased language but with a balanced perspective representing all sides. EoE's comprehensive scope (traditional environmental disciplines and their interactions with society) makes it valuable for students and professionals. It is free to the public, entirely Web based, and constantly updated. A useful FAQ section lists, among other features, the ways in which EoE differs from Wikipedia (CH, Mar'06, 43-3736). Easily searchable by topic, author, or keyword, each EoE entry is loaded with links to related information. This connectivity makes this type of electronic resource functionally superior to paper-based products. Entries include a table of contents, identification of author/editor as appropriate, links to additional articles by these individuals, topical headings linked to more articles, last update, further reading, and instruction on citing the article. Browsing is facilitated by author, title, and topical heading. This well-organized Web site is free of clutter, with a number of features sure to capture users' interest. Beyond the encyclopedia itself, the site offers a news service and a forum for online discussions and dialogue. Navigation is at once sophisticated yet simple and straightforward, being facilitated through a portal with instant access to archives, scholars, hot topics, RSS, FAQs, and much more.

Summing Up: Recommended. All levels.

—T. Johnson, formerly, Arizona State University

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Alien species

Wed, 17 Mar 2010 21:23:30 GMT

Introduction

An alien species is a taxon that finds itself in a new geographic location or habitat. Many of these species arrive in the new location due to inadvertent human activities such as shipping or agriculture, although many are purposefully introduced for food cultivation or for attempts (usually misguided) at ecological intervention . Some of these species reproduce and flourish in their new environment. This success is due largely to the absence of natural predators and parasites, and this may allow alien species to out-compete native species, usurping a habitat previously populated by native species within their niches. Alien species that have negative effects on native species, or cause economic or environmental problems are generally referred to as "invasive" species. An alien species is most commonly thought of as a macroscopic or obviously visible plant or animal; however, some of the most significant alien species are micro-organisms which have conveyed diseases or parasites to distant lands, where there may be insufficient endemic defenses or immunities.

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Mendelevium

Wed, 17 Mar 2010 17:54:38 GMT

Mendelevium (pronounced men-deh-LEE-vi-em) is an artificially produced, radioactive element with the symbol Md and the atomic number 101. Mendelevium is a metallic, radioactive, transuranic element of the actinides. The actinides are the elements located in the bottom row of the periodic table, having atomic numbers 89 through 103. A transuranic element is one that has a higher atomic number than uranium, these are man made and not found in nature. Mendelevium is synthesized by bombarding einsteinium with helium ions. This element was named after Dmitri Mendeleev, who devised one form of the Periodic Table.

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Climate Literacy Handbook

Wed, 17 Mar 2010 11:26:27 GMT

This handbook presents the basic scientific concepts of climate science for non-technical audiences. It is an elaboration of Climate Literacy: The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences, a set of seven principles and their underlying fundamental concepts that developed by scientists and educators. This set of principles has been reviewed and endorsed by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program. Commentary and online resources follow each principle, allowing further exploration of key climate literacy concepts. The handbook aims to promote greater climate science literacy by providing an educational framework around the Essential Principles of Climate Science.

For a version of Climate Literacy: Essential Principles of Climate Sciences without commentary, click here.

Introduction

Guiding Principle for informed climate decision

The Essential Principles of Climate Science Literacy

Glossary

Weather The specific conditions of the atmosphere at a particular place and time, measured in terms of variables that include temperature, precipitation, cloudiness, humidity, air pressure, and wind.

Weather Forecast A prediction about the specific atmospheric conditions expected for a location in the short-term future (hours to days).

Climate The long-term average of conditions in the atmosphere, ocean, and ice sheets and sea ice described by statistics, such as means and extremes.

Climate Forecast A prediction about average or extreme climate conditions for a region in the long-term future (seasons to decades).

Climate Variability Natural changes in climate that fall within the normal range of extremes for a particular region, as measured by temperature, precipitation, and frequency of events. Drivers of climate variability include the El Niño Southern Oscillation and other phenomena.

Climate Change A significant and persistent change in the mean state of the climate or its variability. Climate change occurs in response to changes in some aspect of Earth’s environment: these include regular changes in Earth’s orbit about the sun, re-arrangement of continents through plate tectonic motions, or anthropogenic modification of the atmosphere.

Global Warming The observed increase in average temperature near the Earth’s surface and in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. In common usage, “global warming” often refers to the warming that has occurred as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities. Global warming is a type of climate change; it can also lead to other changes in climate conditions, such as changes in precipitation patterns.

Climate System The matter, energy, and processes involved in interactions among Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and Earth-Sun interactions.

Likely, Very Likely, Extremely Likely, Virtually Certain These terms are used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to indicate how probable it is that a predicted outcome will occur in the climate system, according to expert judgment. A result that is deemed “likely” to occur has a greater than 66% probability of occurring. A “very likely” result has a greater than 90% probability. “Extremely likely” means greater than 95% probability, and “virtually certain” means greater than 99% probability.

Mitigation Human interventions to reduce the sources of greenhouse gases or enhance the sinks that remove them from the atmosphere.

Vulnerability The degree to which physical, biological, and socio-economic systems are susceptible to and unable to cope with adverse impacts of climate change.2

Adaptation Initiatives and measures to reduce the vulnerability of natural and human systems against actual or expected climate change effects.3

Fossil fuels Energy sources such as petroleum, coal, or natural gas, which are derived from living matter that existed during a previous geologic time period.

Feedback The process through which a system is controlled, changed, or modulated in response to its own output. Positive feedback results in amplification of the system output; negative feedback reduces the output of a system.

Carbon Cycle Circulation of carbon atoms through the Earth systems as a result of photosynthetic conversion of carbon dioxide into complex organic compounds by plants, which are consumed by other organisms, and return of the carbon to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide as a result of respiration, decay of organisms, and combustion of fossil fuels.

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Metapopulation dynamics of wild dogs in South Africa

Wed, 17 Mar 2010 11:22:07 GMT

Ideally, species should be protected in areas large enough to allow for natural demographic and genetic processes. However, in realty, species often occur in small and isolated patches of suitable habitat embedded in human-dominated landscapes. In metapopulation ecology, landscapes are viewed as networks of habitat patches (fragments) in which species occur as discrete local populations connected by migration. The dynamics of such a metapopulation is characterised by (asynchronous) local extinction and recolonisation events.

However, human modification of the landscape between habitat patches, the so-called matrix, often prevents migration. While establishing ‘corridors’ through the matrix may allow dispersing individuals to move from one habitat patch to another, this is often problematic in practice. This raises the question of how metapopulation viability can be achieved in fragmented landscapes with limited natural dispersal among isolated habitat patches. Here, we provide one possible approach for endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus).

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Environmental Health Implications of Synthetic Biology

Wed, 17 Mar 2010 05:39:00 GMT

This article, written by Charles W. Schmidt^[1], appeared first in Environmental Health Perspectives—the peer-reviewed, open access journal of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

The article is a verbatim version of the original and is not available for edits or additions by Encyclopedia of Earth editors or authors. Companion articles on the same topic that are editable may exist within the Encyclopedia of Earth.

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Synthetic turf: health debate

Wed, 17 Mar 2010 05:27:19 GMT

This article, written by Dr. Luz Claudio of Mount Sinai School of Medicine, appeared first in Environmental Health Perspectives—the peer-reviewed, open access journal of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

Synthetic Turf: Health Debate Takes Root

In Little League dugouts, community parks, professional athletic organizations, and international soccer leagues, on college campuses and neighborhood playgrounds, even in residential yards, the question being asked is "grass or plastic?" The debate is over synthetic turf, used to blanket lawns, park spaces, and athletic fields where children and adults relax and play; the questions are whether synthetic turf is safe for human and environmental health, and whether its advantages outweigh those of natural grass. Despite or perhaps because of the fact that it is too early to definitively answer those questions, the debate is fierce.

New York City, which buys the largest amount of synthetic turf of any U.S. municipality, held a hearing 13 December 2007 on the use of synthetic turf in city parks. There is a clear need for open space in the city. The 28,700 acres of land constituting some 4,000 parks are distributed unevenly throughout the city. "Many districts have no green parks, not even one," said Helen Sears, a city council member representing the Jackson Heights neighborhood, during the hearing.

New York City Department of Parks & Recreation commissioner Adrian Benepe wants to address the need for parks and athletic fields by installing not only natural grass fields and lawns but also synthetic turf. "With quality recreational facilities—which means, in some cases, synthetic turf fields—we will be able to better confront this issue," he says. In New York City, he points out, at least 35 synthetic turf fields are or will be a replacement for asphalt surfaces.

Others oppose the move toward synthetic turf. "Grassroots organizations have been working hard to have pesticide use reduced or banned in places where it is unnecessary," says Tanya Murphy, a board member of Healthy Child, Healthy World, an advocacy organization. "Now we're going from the frying pan and into the fire when replacing grass with synthetic turf."

The debate leaves many on the fence. Orlando Gil, an assistant research scientist at New York University and soccer coach, is weighing both alternatives: "We want children to play outside, exercise, and play sports, but with pesticides and fertilizers in grass and chemicals in artificial turf, I don't know which to choose."

Indeed, a dearth of research on the nonoccupational human health effects of exposure to the constituents of synthetic turf hampers the ability to make that choice with any degree of confidence. On the basis of limited toxicity data, some reports have concluded the health risks are minimal. Most agree, however, that far more research is needed before the question can be definitively answered. In the 13 December 2007 issue of Rachel's Democracy and Health News, William Crain of the City College of New York Psychology Department and Junfeng Zhang of the University of Medicine & Dentistry of New Jersey School of Public Health called conclusions of minimal risk "premature.

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Recently Updated Articles - Encyclopedia of Earth

Nanoparticles

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Annex 3

Reviewers of the IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Annex 2

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Chapter 9

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Chapter 1

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Chapter 2

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IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I: Front Matter

Einsteinium

Reviews of the EoE

The Science Teacher

Weekly Dig

GoodCleanTech: The Independent Guide to Ecotechnology

CHOICE: Current Reviews for Academic Libraries

Alien species

Introduction

Mendelevium

Climate Literacy Handbook

Introduction

Guiding Principle for informed climate decision

The Essential Principles of Climate Science Literacy

Glossary

Metapopulation dynamics of wild dogs in South Africa

Environmental Health Implications of Synthetic Biology

Synthetic turf: health debate

Synthetic Turf: Health Debate Takes Root