http://www.eoearth.org/ Wed, 31 Dec 1969 19:00:00 GMT 15 en-us cutler@bu.edu http://www.eoearth.org/e/i/header_logo.gif http://www.eoearth.org/ http://www.eoearth.org/article/Editorial_Board <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Editorial_Board'><img border='0' src='/upload/thumb/5/5d/Cutler_bio_image.jpg/100px-Cutler_bio_image.jpg' width='100'/></a> <?php $page_title = "Editorial Board";?> <?php include($_SERVER['DOCUMENT_ROOT'] . '/e/template/header.php');?> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Editorial_Board'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Editorial_Board Wed, 18 Nov 2009 18:07:22 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_Change_Biographies <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_Change_Biographies'><img border='0' src='/media/approved/9/92/Svante_August_Arrhenius_100px.jpg' width='100'/></a></p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_Change_Biographies'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_Change_Biographies Wed, 18 Nov 2009 17:20:08 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bierbaum,_Rosina <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bierbaum,_Rosina'><img border='0' src='/media/approved/6/6e/Rosina_Bierbaum.jpg' width='100'/></a> <p>Rosina Bierbaum is an <a href="/article/Ecology">ecologist</a> who has played a leading role at the intersection of climate change science and policy. She has authored dozens of scientific reports and journal articles on climate change science and policy and has served as a scientific adviser to both the U.S. Congress and the White House.</p><p>In the early 1980s, Bierbaum joined the Office of Technology Assessment of the U.S. Congress where she led research on climate change issues and authored reports on mitigation and adaptation. In the mid-1990s, she moved to the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) in the Executive Office of the President, eventually becoming Associate Director for Environment, a position requiring Senate confirmation. In this position, she served as the Clinton Administration&#39;s senior scientific adviser on environmental research and development, with responsibilities for advising the administration on a wide spectrum of domestic and international environmental issues. While at OSTP, Bierbaum coordinated the U.S. government&#39;s reviews of the Second Assessment Report (1995) and the Third Assessment Report (2001) of the <a href="/article/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change_%28IPCC%29">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> and led U.S. delegations to the IPCC plenary sessions in <a href="/article/Costa_Rica">Costa Rica</a> in 1998, in Montreal in 1999, and in Shanghai in 2001. She also headed the U.S. delegation to the U.S.-China bilateral session on climate science in 2000. In 2001, she served as Acting Director of OSTP during the transition between the Clinton and George W. Bush administrations before becoming Dean of the School of Natural Resources and Environment at the University of Michigan.</p><p>In 2008, The World Bank selected Bierbaum to be co-author and co-director of its World Development Report 2010, which will focus on climate change and development.</p><p>Bierbaum is an elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. The American Geophysical Union awarded her its Waldo E. Smith Medal in 2000, and the <a href="/article/Environmental_Protection_Agency%2C_United_States">Environmental Protection Agency</a> awarded her the 1999 Climate Protection Award. She serves on numerous scientific advisory boards and committees for federal and non-governmental organizations and philanthropic foundations.</p><p>Bierbaum earned her B.S. in Biology and B.A. in English from Boston College and a Ph.D. in Ecology and Evolution at the State University of New York, Stony Brook. </p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bierbaum,_Rosina'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bierbaum,_Rosina Wed, 18 Nov 2009 15:16:24 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Diversification_in_agriculture <h1>Diversification explained<br /> </h1><p>Diversification of <a href="/article/Agriculture">agriculture</a> refers to the shift from the regional dominance of one crop to regional production of a number of crops, to meet ever increasing <a href="/article/Supply_and_demand">demand</a> for cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, oilseeds, fibres, fodder and <a href="/article/Grasses">grasses</a>, fuel, etc. It aims to improve <a href="/article/Soil">soil</a> health and a dynamic equilibrium of the agro-ecosystem. Crop diversification takes into account the economic returns from different value-added crops. It is different from the concept of multiple cropping or succession planting in which multiple crops are planted in succession over the course of a growing season. Moreover, it implies the use of environmental and human resources to grow a mix of crops with complementary marketing opportunities, and it implies a shifting of resources from low value crops to high value crops, usually intended for human consumption such as fresh market fruits and vegetables. With globalization of the <a href="/article/Market">market</a>, crop diversification in agriculture means to increase the total crop productivity in terms of quality, quantity and monetary value under specific, diverse agro-climatic situations world-wide. There are two approaches to crop diversification in agriculture. First is horizontal diversification, which is the primary approach to crop diversification in production agriculture. Here, diversification takes place through crop intensification by adding new high-value crops to existing cropping systems as a way to improve the overall productivity of a farm or region&#39;s farming economy. The second is the vertical diversification approach in which farmers and others add value to products through processing, regional branding, packaging, merchandising, or other efforts to enhance the product. Opportunities for crop diversification vary depending on risks, opportunities and the feasibility of proposed changes within a socio-economic and agro-economic context. Crop diversification may occur as a result of government policies. The &quot;Technology Mission on Oilseeds&quot;, &quot;Spices Development Board&quot;, &quot;Coconut Development Board&quot; etc. are examples where the Indian government created policies to thrust change upon farmers and the food supply chain at large as a way to promote crop diversity. Crop diversification is the outcome of several interactive effects of many factors:</p><ol><li>Environmental factors including irrigation, <a href="/article/Precipitation_and_fog">rainfall</a>, temperature, and <a href="/article/Soil">soil</a> fertility.</li><li>Technology-related factors including seeds, <a href="/article/Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> and water technologies, but also those related to marketing, harvest, storage, agro-processing, distribution, logistics, etc.</li><li>Household-related factors including regional food traditions, fodder and fuel as well as the labor and investment capacity of farm people and their communities.</li><li>Price-related factors including output and input prices as well as national and international  <a href="/article/Trade_and_the_environment">trade</a> policies and other economic policies that affect the prices either directly or indirectly.</li><li>Institutional and Infrastructure-related factors including farm size, location and tenancy arrangements, research, in-field technical support, marketing systems and government regulating policies, etc. <br /></li></ol><p>All these five factors are interrelated. The adoption of crop technologies is commonly assumed to be influenced primarily by resource-related factors when institutional and infrastructure factors can play as much or more of a role in their adoption. </p><strong> </strong> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Diversification_in_agriculture'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Diversification_in_agriculture Tue, 17 Nov 2009 22:06:24 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Origins_of_the_Environmental_Protection_Agency <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Origins_of_the_Environmental_Protection_Agency'><img border='0' src='/media/approved/a/a4/EPA_seal.gif' width='100'/></a> <p>While Earth Day launched the idea of environmentalism in its present sense, the realization of the value of wilderness and an appreciation of the consequences of its destruction dates back several centuries in America. For example, as early as 1652, the city of Boston established a public water supply, a step followed in the next century by several towns in Pennsylvania. By 1800, 17 municipalities had taken similar measures to protect their citizens against unfit drinking sources. Still, anyone living in the great cities of New York, Philadelphia, Charleston, and Boston just after the American revolution could not escape the ill-effects of expanding urbanization: the stench of sewage in near-by rivers; the unwholesome presence of animal and human wastes underfoot; the odors of rotting food; the jangling shouts of vendors in narrow lanes; and the constant grinding of hooves and iron wagon wheels on unpaved streets. </p><p>Industrialism in the nineteenth century widened the impact of environmental degradation. Literary people were the first to sense the meaning of this trend. Herman Melville&#39;s epic novel <em>Moby Dick</em> (1851) and <a href="/article/Thoreau%2C_Henry_David">Henry David Thoreau&#39;s</a> <em>Walden</em>, or <em>Life in the Woods</em> (1854) emphasized, respectively, the power and the tranquility of nature. A second generation of writers, perhaps sobered by the final settlement of the American West, wrote without fictional guise. John Burroughs published 27 volumes of intimate, experiential nature essays. John Muir, the Scottish prophet of the rugged outdoors, set down his observations in a series of books, beginning with <em>The Mountains of California</em> in 1894. </p><p>President Theodore Roosevelt, who undertook a western camping trip with Muir in 1903, came to symbolize the campaign for conservation, which gained steadily in political popularity. During and after his Administration, the use and retention of natural resources became a preoccupation of government. </p><p>President Franklin Roosevelt&#39;s New Deal enacted a number of natural resource measures. The Soil Conservation Service, founded in 1935, applied scientific practices to reduce the erosion of agricultural land. The depletion of animal life received recognition in the passage of the 1937 Pittman-Robertson Act, establishing a fund for state fish and wildlife programs from the proceeds of federal taxes on hunting and fishing equipment. Most ambitious of all, the Tennessee Valley Authority erected nine dams and a string of massive generating stations. </p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Origins_of_the_Environmental_Protection_Agency'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Origins_of_the_Environmental_Protection_Agency Tue, 17 Nov 2009 13:17:14 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Environmental_Protection_Agency,_United_States <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Environmental_Protection_Agency,_United_States'><img border='0' src='/media/approved/8/8e/EPA_logo.gif' width='100'/></a> <p>The United States Environmental Protection Agency (&quot;US EPA&quot; or simply &quot;EPA&quot;) is an independent agency of the federal government of the United States. One of the major environmental bodies of the national government, the US EPA is tasked with administering and enforcing over a dozen major environmental laws federal government in order to &quot;protect and safeguard human health and the environment.&quot; </p><p> The EPA is lead by an Administrator nominated by the President and confirmed by the U.S. Senate. The Administrator reports directly to the President of the United States. The current EPA  Administrator is Lisa Jackson, she was nominated to the position by President Barack Obama (December 15, 2008), confirmed by the U.S. Senate (January 23, 2009) and sworn in on January 26, 2009. </p><p>The US EPA has approximately 18,000 employees who carry out the work of the agency through offices organized around environmental themes (e.g., water, air, toxics, etc.), geographic regions, or by supporting the agency in a cross cutting fashion (e.g., research and development, adminstration, legal counsel, etc.)</p><p>The US EPA has a budget of $7.8 Billion in Fiscal Year (FY) 2009. Nearly half of the EPA budget goes to support State level programs through a variety of grants. In addition, the agency received $7.2 Billion in additional &quot;one-time&quot; funding under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (often referred to as the &quot;Stimulus Bill&quot;). President Obama has requested a budget for FY 2010 of $10.5 billion.</p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Environmental_Protection_Agency,_United_States'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Environmental_Protection_Agency,_United_States Tue, 17 Nov 2009 13:15:23 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Commerson's_dolphin <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Commerson's_dolphin'><img border='0' src='/upload/thumb/5/5e/Commersons_dolphin.jpg/260px-Commersons_dolphin.jpg' width='100'/></a> <p>The Commerson&#39;s dolphin (scientific name: <em>Cephalorhynchus commersonii</em>) is one of 36 members of the porpoise family.  There are two main subpopulations of the playful Commerson&#39;s dolphin.  One resides off the coast of South America, and the second resides off the coast of the Kreguelen Islands.</p><p>Unlike most members of the Delphinidae family, the Commerson&#39;s dolphin lacks a well defined snout.  In addition, different from most delphinids, the majority of female <em>Cephalorhynchus commersonii </em>will ovulate more frequently in the right than in the left ovary.  The sex of this black and white dolphin is differentiated by a black patch covering the genital region.  For males, the patch completely covers the region and is oval or heatshaped; while in females the black patch only encircles the anterior region.  </p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Commerson's_dolphin'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Commerson's_dolphin Mon, 16 Nov 2009 09:16:03 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Offsetting_carbon_dioxide_emissions_through_minesoil_reclamation <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Offsetting_carbon_dioxide_emissions_through_minesoil_reclamation'><img border='0' src='/upload/thumb/2/2d/Coal-bearing_areas_of_the_United_States.jpg/400px-Coal-bearing_areas_of_the_United_States.jpg' width='100'/></a> <p><a href="/article/Greenhouse_gas">Greenhouse gases</a> (GHGs) trap the sun’s <a href="/article/Heat">heat</a> and keep the earth’s surface warm. Without this natural <a href="/article/Greenhouse_effect">“greenhouse” effect</a>, average <a href="/article/Temperature">temperatures</a> at the earth’s surface would fall below freezing. However, since the past few decades, there have been noticeable increases in atmospheric concentrations of GHGs like <a href="/article/Carbon_dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO₂), <a href="/article/Methane">methane</a> (CH₄), <a href="/article/Nitrous_oxide">nitrous oxide</a> (N₂O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFC’s), perfluorocarbons (PFC’s) and sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆). Human activities that release GHGs into the atmosphere have been identified as responsible for this increase. Carbon dioxide, one of the major GHGs, is produced when generating energy from fossil fuels such as <a href="/article/Coal">coal</a>.</p> <p>About 5.4 billion tons of coal is burned each year worldwide, and it is the single largest fuel source for the generation of electricity world wide. About 40% of the electricity in the world and 50% in <a href="/article/Energy_profile_of_the_United_States">U.S.</a> comes from coal. Coal burning generates about a third of the world’s CO₂ emissions. The <a href="/article/Carbon">carbon</a> (C) emissions resulting from power generation have been implicated as a contributor to <a href="/article/Global_warming">global warming</a>. Coal is currently produced in 26 states in the U.S. (Fig. 1). However, coal mining has a number of environmental impacts. In the United States alone, coal mining and coal use emitted 2104 Teragram CO₂ equivalent in 2004. Such anthropogenic perturbations of the global <a href="/article/Carbon_cycle">C cycle</a> directly affect global climate and <a href="/article/Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> functions. The CO₂ released to the <a href="/article/Atmospheric_composition">atmosphere</a> from fossil fuel combustion, mining, and other anthropogenic activities is widely documented and accepted as a principal cause of the projected increases in GHG emissions resulting in climate change. However, coal’s low cost compared to other energy sources encourages its use in the countries with large deposits.</p><p>Mining causes drastic change to the original <a href="/article/Soil">soil</a> profile and loss of <a href="/article/Soil_organic_carbon">soil organic carbon</a> (SOC) (Fig. 2). During the process of mining, the topsoil (about 30 <a href="/article/Meter">centimeters</a> [cm]) is removed and stored separately. The overburden, composed of <a href="/article/Composition_of_rocks">rock</a> and heavy geologic material on top of <a href="/article/Coal">coal</a>, is then removed and placed into already mined pits. During the process of reclamation, the overburden is graded and topsoil is put back on top of the overburden to a depth of usually 30cm. The topsoil is graded to the original contour of the land. An initial dose of <a href="/article/Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> and mulch is then applied before seeding the land with a mixture of grasses and/or legumes. The land under reclamation essentially remains undisturbed. </p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Offsetting_carbon_dioxide_emissions_through_minesoil_reclamation'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Offsetting_carbon_dioxide_emissions_through_minesoil_reclamation Mon, 16 Nov 2009 08:41:25 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Mercury_in_the_Great_Lakes <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Mercury_in_the_Great_Lakes'><img border='0' src='/upload/thumb/3/30/Great_Lakes_basin.gif/350px-Great_Lakes_basin.gif' width='100'/></a> <p>The five lakes, Lake Superior, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario, known as the Great Lakes contain about one fifth of the world’s total fresh water supply. While Lake Michigan is entirely within the United States, the other four lakes share the international border between U.S. and Canada. </p><p>During the last few decades, there have been serious pollution problems in the Great Lakes due to <a href="/article/Agriculture">agricultural</a> and industrial development as well as the <a href="/article/Population_growth_rate">growth in human population</a>. Major contaminants in the Great Lakes are <a href="/article/Pesticide">pesticides</a>, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and heavy metals, such as <a href="/article/Mercury">mercury</a>. Although mercury is a useful metal, it is highly <a href="/article/Toxicity">toxic</a> affecting the nervous and cardiovascular system. Exposure to mercury could lead to nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, severe kidney damage, hallucinations, memory loss, nerve damage, inability to concentrate, increase in blood pressure level, loss of color vision, tremors, loss of dermal sensitivity, slurred speech and even paralysis and death. </p><p>Mercury is found in natural deposits of cinnabar (HgS). Natural sources, such as <a href="/article/Volcano">volcanic eruptions</a>, forest fires, <a href="/article/Soil_erosion_and_deposition">erosion</a> of mercury-bearing <a href="/article/Soil">soils</a> and <a href="/article/Composition_of_rocks">rocks</a>, <a href="/article/Evaporation">evaporation</a> of mercury-containing water, and animal secretions may contribute mercury to the <a href="/article/Atmospheric_composition">atmosphere</a>; however, human-related mercury emissions result in higher levels of mercury. Important sources of mercury <a href="/article/Air_pollution_emissions">emissions</a> include <a href="/article/Fossil_fuel_power_plant">electric power plants</a> and general heating plants burning <a href="/article/Coal">coal</a> and oil, primary and secondary non-ferrous metal smelters, <a href="/article/Iron">iron</a> and steel production plants, <a href="/article/Cement">cement</a> plants, and municipal/hospital waste incinerators. The use of mercury in amalgam fillings in dentistry causes mercury emissions both to air during cremation and to water systems as a result of dental practices as well as from human feces from people with amalgam fillings. Human feces is also a source of mercury from ingested foods and tobacco smoke. The use of mercury in <a href="/article/Gold">gold</a> and <a href="/article/Silver">silver</a> mining in northwestern U.S.A. and in Canada before more efficient methods were developed also emitted mercury. </p><p>Industries, such as chlor-alkali plants and paper pulp factories have been major industrial sources discharging <a href="/article/Mercury">mercury</a> as waste into water bodies. This disrupts the wastewater treatment processes and results in the release of large quantities of untreated or partially treated sewage containing mercury to the environment as well. Emissions from municipal landfill operations, <a href="/article/Essential_economic_activities">consumer</a> products such as batteries and fluorescent light bulbs, emissions from <a href="/article/Soil">soil</a> and plant surfaces, and mine wastes are other sources of mercury pollution. Once mercury is released to the <a href="/article/Atmospheric_composition">atmosphere</a>, it can transport to long distances. Ultimately, mercury is removed from atmosphere through deposition on soil, water and vegetation. </p><p>Mercury exists in many forms in the environment and some forms are more <a href="/article/Toxicity">toxic</a> than others. Elemental mercury accumulates in lakes and other water bodies where chemical and microbial activities convert a part of it to highly toxic methyl mercury. Methyl mercury may accumulate in living organisms and is passed along biological food chains. Thus, aquatic fish species and fish-consuming animals in the Great Lakes accumulate toxic levels of mercury in their <a href="/article/Tissues">tissues</a>, although mercury may be initially present in water in very low concentrations. Elevated mercury concentrations in different species of fish have been observed in the Great Lakes. In addition, there are numerous reports of mercury contamination in the waters, sediments and biota other than fish. </p><p>Persons consuming Great Lakes fish have greater exposure to toxic substances resulting in adverse effects on their health. Elevated mercury concentration has been detected in the blood and/or body tissues of fish consumers of the Great Lakes. Persons consuming large amounts of some Great Lakes sport fish are found to have higher levels of <a href="/article/Mercury">mercury</a> in blood. In addition, developmental defects and neurological problems in children of some fish-consuming parents, nervous system dysfunction in adults, and disturbances in reproductive parameters have also been detected. Children of women exposed to mercury during pregnancy by consumption of mercury-contaminated fish are worst affected. Again, blood mercury levels of the fish eaters of the Areas of Concern (AOCs) have been higher than in many other Great Lakes populations. At present, mercury levels in the Great Lakes remain high enough to cause developmental defects in infants. Cerebral palsy hospitalization has been attributed to methyl mercury exposure in the Great Lakes communities. </p><p>Mercury concentration in the Great Lakes can be ascribed to direct discharges into the waters, disturbances of mercury previously deposited in sediments, and atmospheric deposition. There are numerous anthropogenic sources of mercury to the Great Lakes area from local, <a href="/article/Region">regional</a>, and global sources. While there have been significant contributions from incineration and metallurgical sources, <a href="/article/Coal">coal</a> <a href="/article/Combustion">combustion</a> is the largest contributor to atmospheric mercury deposition to these lakes. While combustion of coal accounts for most of the mercury <a href="/article/Air_pollution_emissions">emissions</a> in the U.S.A., smelting of nonferrous metals represents the largest source of mercury emissions in Canada. The second largest source category of mercury emissions in both the U.S.A. and Canada is the combined incineration of municipal and medical waste. In addition to North American anthropogenic emissions, global atmospheric emissions also significantly contribute to the deposition of mercury in various parts of the U.S.A. and Canada including the Great Lakes basin. </p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Mercury_in_the_Great_Lakes'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Mercury_in_the_Great_Lakes Mon, 16 Nov 2009 08:36:43 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Local_and_regional_control_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions_in_China <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Local_and_regional_control_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions_in_China'><img border='0' src='/upload/thumb/0/01/CO2_emissions_global_2006.jpg/350px-CO2_emissions_global_2006.jpg' width='100'/></a> <p>China, at present, has not yet openly accepted obligations to reduce <a href="/article/Greenhouse_gas">greenhouse gas</a> (GHG) <a href="/article/Air_pollution_emissions">emissions</a>. This is seen by many countries as a very serious problem in view of the large contribution of this country to global greenhouse gas emissions. China officially takes the point of view that the present concentrations of greenhouse gases have been mainly produced by developed countries and that the responsibility of the developing countries, hence, is very limited. However, measures to reduce local and regional pollution problems will in fact have a large impact on Chinese greenhouse gas emissions.</p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Local_and_regional_control_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions_in_China'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Local_and_regional_control_of_greenhouse_gas_emissions_in_China Mon, 16 Nov 2009 08:34:37 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Australian_sea_lion <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Australian_sea_lion'><img border='0' src='/upload/thumb/d/d8/Australian_Sea_Lion_1.jpg/260px-Australian_Sea_Lion_1.jpg' width='100'/></a> <p>Also known as the <strong>White-capped sea lion</strong>. The Australian sea lion (Scientific name: <em>Neophoca cinerea</em> (Péron, 1816) is one of 16 species of marine mammals in the family of <a href="/article/Eared_Seals">Eared seals</a> which include sea lions and fur seals. Together with the families of true seals and Walruses, Eared seals form the group of marine mammals known as Pinnipeds. </p><p>Eared seals differ from the true seals in having small external earflaps and hind flippers that can be turned to face forwards. Together with strong front flippers, this gives them extra mobility on land and an adult fur seal can move extremely fast across the beach if it has to. They also use their front flippers for swimming, whereas true seals use their hind flippers. </p><p>Australian sea lions are found on islands offshore of Australia, especially on Kangaroo Island and Dangerous Reef (near Port Lincoln) in southern Australia. The species is considered endangered and is protected.</p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Australian_sea_lion'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Australian_sea_lion Sat, 14 Nov 2009 20:04:01 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Neophoca <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Neophoca'><img border='0' src='/upload/thumb/d/d8/Australian_Sea_Lion_1.jpg/260px-Australian_Sea_Lion_1.jpg' width='100'/></a> <p><em>Neophoca</em> is a genus of just one species (a “monotypic” genus) within the <a href="/article/Eared_Seals">eared seal family</a> of sixteen species - the <a href="/article/Australian_sea_lion">Australian sea lion</a>. <a href="/article/Eared_Seals">Eared seals</a>  include sea lions and fur seals. Together with the families of true seals and Walruses, Eared seals form the group of marine mammals known as Pinnipeds. </p><p>Eared seals  differ from the true seals in having small external earflaps and hind flippers that can be turned to face forwards. Together with strong front flippers, this gives them extra mobility on land and an adult fur seal can move extremely fast across the beach if it has to. They also use their front flippers for swimming, whereas true seals use their hind flippers. </p><p>Australian sea lions are found on islands offshore of Australia, especially on Kangaroo Island and Dangerous Reef (near Port Lincoln) in southern Australia. The species is considered endangered and is protected.</p><p>For details see <a href="/article/Australian_sea_lion">Australian sea lion</a>.</p><p><strong>Further Reading</strong> </p><ol><li><a href="http://www.eol.org/pages/328616  " class='external text' title="http://www.eol.org/pages/328616  ">&lt;em&gt;Neophoca cinerea&lt;/em&gt; (Péron, 1816)</a> Encyclopedia of Life (accessed April 7, 2009)</li><li><a href="http://www.pinnipeds.org/species/auslion.htm" class='external text' title="http://www.pinnipeds.org/species/auslion.htm">Australian Sea Lions</a>, Seal Conservation Society (accessed April 7, 2009)</li><li>The Pinnipeds: Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses, Marianne Riedman, University of California Press, 1991 <a href="http://www.amazon.com/dp/0520064984/?tag=encycofearth-20" class='external text' title="http://www.amazon.com/dp/0520064984/?tag=encycofearth-20">ISBN: 0520064984</a> </li><li>Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals, Bernd Wursig, Academic Press, 2002 <a href="http://www.amazon.com/dp/0125513402/?tag=encycofearth-20" class='external text' title="http://www.amazon.com/dp/0125513402/?tag=encycofearth-20">ISBN: 0125513402</a> </li><li>Marine Mammal Research: Conservation beyond Crisis, edited by John E. Reynolds III, William F. Perrin, Randall R. Reeves, Suzanne Montgomery and Timothy J. Ragen, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005 <a href="http://www.amazon.com/dp/0801882559/?tag=encycofearth-20" class='external text' title="http://www.amazon.com/dp/0801882559/?tag=encycofearth-20">ISBN: 0801882559</a> </li><li><span>Walker&#39;s Mammals of the World, </span><span>Ronald M. Nowak, </span><span>Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999 </span><a href="http://www.amazon.com/dp/0801857899/?tag=encycofearth-20" class='external text' title="http://www.amazon.com/dp/0801857899/?tag=encycofearth-20">ISBN: 0801857899</a> </li><li><a href="http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=267" class='external text' title="http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=267">Australian Sea Lion</a>, MarineBio.org (accessed April 7, 2009) </li></ol> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Neophoca'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Neophoca Sat, 14 Nov 2009 20:00:10 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/International_Advisory_Board <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/International_Advisory_Board'><img border='0' src='/media/approved/0/06/Rita_Colwell.jpg' width='100'/></a> <?php $page_title = "International Advisory Board";?> <?php include($_SERVER['DOCUMENT_ROOT'] . '/e/template/header.php');?> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/International_Advisory_Board'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/International_Advisory_Board Thu, 12 Nov 2009 15:23:28 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Galapagos_penguin <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Galapagos_penguin'><img border='0' src='/upload/thumb/3/34/Galapagos_penguin1.jpg/260px-Galapagos_penguin1.jpg' width='100'/></a> <p>The Galápagos penguin (scientific name <em>Spheniscus mendiculus)</em> is one of seventeen species of flightless birds in the family Spheniscidae (the <a href="/article/Penguins">penguins</a>). It is one of four &quot;Banded Penguins&quot; in the genus (<em>Spheniscus</em>), which also includes the <a href="/article/Black-footed_penguin">Black-footed</a>, Humboldt, and Magellanic penguins.</p><p>Like all penguins, the Galapagos penguin is characterized by its erect posture, stiff wings (modified into flippers), excellent swimming ability, awkward movement on land, and coloration. The black back and white front make penguins difficult to see when swimming,  blending with the sea from above and with the sky from below. </p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Galapagos_penguin'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Galapagos_penguin Thu, 12 Nov 2009 15:06:12 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/EIF_archives <br /> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/EIF_archives'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/EIF_archives Thu, 12 Nov 2009 13:44:54 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Indian_river_systems_and_pollution <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Indian_river_systems_and_pollution'><img border='0' src='/upload/thumb/4/48/Map-of-major-rivers.jpg/450px-Map-of-major-rivers.jpg' width='100'/></a> <h1>Introduction <br /></h1><p>The Indian River Systems can be divided into four categories – the Himalayan, the <a href="/article/River">rivers</a> traversing the <a href="/article/Central_Deccan_Plateau_dry_deciduous_forests">Deccan Plateau</a>, the Coastal and those in the inland <a href="/article/Drainage_basin">drainage basin</a> (Figure 1). The Himalayan rivers are perennial as they are fed by melting glaciers every summer. During the monsoon, these rivers assume alarming proportions. Swollen with rainwater, they often inundate villages and towns in their path. The Gangetic basin is the largest river system in India, draining almost a quarter of the country.</p><p align="justify">The <a href="/article/River">rivers</a> of the Indian peninsular plateau are mainly fed by rain. During summer, their flow is greatly reduced, and some of the tributaries even dry up, only to be revived in the monsoon. The Godavari basin in the peninsula is the largest in the country, spanning an area of almost one-tenth of the country. The rivers Narmada (India’s holiest river) and Tapti flow almost parallel to each other but empty themselves in opposite directions. The two rivers make the valley rich in alluvial soil and teak forests cover much of the land. While coastal rivers gush down the peaks of the Western Ghats into the Arabian Sea in torrents during the rains, their flow slow down after the monsoon. Streams like the Sambhar in western Rajasthan are mainly seasonal in character, draining into the inland basins and salt lakes. In the Rann of Kutch, the only river that flows through the salt desert is the Luni. The major river system of India are discussed below.</p> <h1 align="justify">Indus River System</h1><p align="justify">The Indus originates in the northern slopes of the Kailash range in Tibet near Lake Manasarovar. It follows a north-westerly course through Tibet. It enters Indian territory in Jammu and Kashmir. It forms a picturesque gorge in this part. Several tributaries - the Zaskar, the Shyok, the Nubra and the Hunza join it in the Kashmir region. It flows through the regions of Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit and runs between the Ladakh Range and the Zaskar Range. It crosses the Himalayas through a 5181 m deep gorge near Attock, lying north of the Nanga Parbat and later takes a bend to the south west direction before entering <a href="/article/Water_profile_of_Pakistan">Pakistan</a>. It has a large number of tributaries in both <a href="/article/Water_profile_of_India">India</a> and Pakistan and has a total length of about 2897 km from the source to the point near Karachi where it falls into the Arabian Sea. The main tributaries of the Indus in India are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej.</p><p align="justify"> </p> <h1 align="justify">Brahmaputra River System</h1><p align="justify">The Brahmaputra originates in the Mansarovar lake, also the source of the Indus and the Satluj. It is slightly longer than the Indus, but most of its course lies outside India. It flows eastward, parallel to the Himalayas. Reaching Namcha Barwa (7757 m), it takes a U-turn around it and enters India in Arunachal Pradesh and known as dihang. The undercutting done by this river is of the order of 5500 metres. In India, it flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, and is joined by several tributaries.</p> <h1 align="justify">Ganga River System </h1><p>The Ganga (Ganges) rises from the Gangotri <a href="/article/Glacier">Glacier</a> in the Garhwal Himalayas at an elevation of some 4100 metres above the sea level under the name of Bhagirathi. This main stream of the river flows through the Himalayas till another two streams – the Mandakini and the Alaknanda – join it at Dev Prayag, the point of confluence. The combined stream is then known as the Ganga. The main tributaries of the Ganga are Yamuna, Ram Ganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Son, Damodar and Sapt Kosi. The river after traversing a distance of 2525 kms from its source meets the <a href="/article/Bay_of_Bengal_large_marine_ecosystem">Bay of Bengal</a> at Ganga Sagar in West Bengal.</p> <h1 align="justify">Yamuna River System</h1><p align="justify">The River Yamuna originates from the Yamunotri <a href="/article/Glacier">glacier</a>, 6387m above mean sea level (msl), at the Banderpoonch peak in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. The catchment of the river extends to states of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and the entire union territory of Delhi. The river flows 1367 km from here to its confluence with the River Ganga at Allahabad. The main tributaries joining the river include the Hindon, Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken. The annual flow of the river is about 10,000 cumecs. The annual usage is 4400 cumecs, irrigation accounting for 96% of this.</p> <h1 align="justify">Narmada River System </h1><p align="justify">The Narmada or Nerbudda is a river in central India. It forms the traditional boundary between North India and South India, and is a total of 1,289 km (801 mi) long. Of the major rivers of peninsular India, only the Narmada, the Tapti and the Mahi run from east to west. It rises on the summit of Amarkantak Hill in Madhya Pradesh state, and for the first 320 kilometres (200 miles) of its course winds among the Mandla Hills, which form the head of the Satpura Range; then at Jabalpur, passing through the &#39;Marble Rocks&#39;, it enters the Narmada Valley between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges, and pursues a direct westerly course to the Gulf of Cambay. Its total length through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat amounts to 1312 kilometres (815 miles), and it empties into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district of Gujarat.</p> <h1 align="justify">Tapti River System </h1><p align="justify"> The Tapi is a river of central India. It is one of the major rivers of peninsular India with the length of around 724 km; it runs from east to west. It rises in the eastern Satpura Range of southern Madhya Pradesh state, and flows westward, draining Madhya Pradesh&#39;s historic Nimar region, Maharashtra&#39;s historic Khandesh and east Vidarbha regions in the northwest corner of the Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat before emptying into the Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea, in the State of Gujarat. The Western Ghats or Sahyadri range starts south of the Tapti River near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra.</p><p align="justify">The Tapi River Basin lies mostly in northern and eastern districts Maharashtra state viz, Amravati, Akola, Buldhana, Washim, Jalgaon, Dhule, Nandurbar, Malegaon, Nashik districts but also covers Betul, Burhanpur districts of Madhya Pradesh and Surat district in Gujarat as well. The principal tributaries of Tapi River are Purna River, Girna River, Panzara River, Waghur River, Bori River and Aner River. </p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Indian_river_systems_and_pollution'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Indian_river_systems_and_pollution Thu, 12 Nov 2009 11:58:03 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/EoE_for_Educators <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/EoE_for_Educators'><img border='0' src='/media/approved/c/c5/Classroom_widget_3.jpg' width='100'/></a></p> <p>The Earth Portal and Encyclopedia of Earth are dedicated to expanding and enhancing opportunities for education on environmental topics. Please take a moment to explore the many resources below, and provide <a href="http://www.earthportal.org/?page_id=1371" class='external text' title="http://www.earthportal.org/?page id=1371">feedback</a> on using online resources for education.</p> <h2><strong>Internship Opportunity</strong></h2> <p>Accepting Applications for Spring 2010 EoE Interns. <br />Final Deadline is December 4th, 2009.</p> <p><a href="https://share.acrobat.com/adc/document.do?docid=f2143e34-38b4-4c57-b89e-ba564f2806dc" class='external text' title="https://share.acrobat.com/adc/document.do?docid=f2143e34-38b4-4c57-b89e-ba564f2806dc">Internship Details</a> (PDF)<br /><a href="http://www.ncseonline.org/00/Batch/Earth%20Portal/Spring%20Internship/Student%20application%20form%20Spring%202010.doc" class='external text' title="http://www.ncseonline.org/00/Batch/Earth Portal/Spring Internship/Student application form Spring 2010.doc">Student Application Form</a> (PDF)<br /><a href="http://www.ncseonline.org/00/Batch/Earth%20Portal/Spring%20Internship/Faculty%20recommendation%20form%20Spring%202010.doc" class='external text' title="http://www.ncseonline.org/00/Batch/Earth Portal/Spring Internship/Faculty recommendation form Spring 2010.doc">Faculty Recommendation Form</a> (PDF)</p> <h2>Initiatives of the Environmental Information Coalition</h2><p><a href="/article/EoE_in_the_classroom">EoE in the Classroom</a><br />See how educators are using the Encyclopedia of Earth in classrooms for course preparation and teaching.</p><p><a href="/article/Student_Science_Communication_Project">Student Science Communication Project</a><br />Browse articles written by students and published on the Encyclopedia of Earth with guidance from faculty and the EoE expert community.</p> <h2>Readers and Online Courses</h2><p><a href="/article/Ecology_Reader-_Ecology_for_Teachers">Ecology for Teachers Reader</a><br />Explore a graduate level course reader developed by Mark McGinley for an interdisciplinary program to teach high school teachers to teach ecology.</p><p><a href="/article/Environmental_Contaminants_and_Toxicology_Reader">Environmental Contaminants and Toxicology Reader</a><br />Delve into a broad introductory reader developed by Emily Monosson covering contaminants and toxicology.</p><p><a href="/article/AP_Environmental_Science_Online_Course">AP Environmental Science Online Course</a><br />Utilize this thorough online course put together by the University of California College Prep to prepare students for the College Board’s Advanced Placement Environmental Science test.</p> <h2>Useful links</h2><p><a href="/article/Collections">Collections</a> of articles and resources around a topic or region</p><p><a href="/article/EBooks">E-books</a> published on the Encyclopedia of Earth</p><p><a href="/article/Environmental_Classics">Environmental Classics</a> that are often used in environmental science and studies programs</p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/EoE_for_Educators'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/EoE_for_Educators Thu, 12 Nov 2009 11:50:04 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Thermodynamics <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Thermodynamics'><img border='0' src='/upload/thumb/8/8d/Carnot.jpg/249px-Carnot.jpg' width='100'/></a> <p>Thermodynamics is the physical science that accounts for the transformations of thermal energy into mechanical energy and its equivalent forms (electricity, self-organization of complex systems), and vice versa. The development of thermodynamics and the introduction of the concept of entropy, a measure of energy and resource degradation, are rooted into the technological ground of the <a href="/article/Industrial_Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> (England, XVIII - XIX centuries). James Watt&#39;s steam engine (1765) paved the way to a massive use of <a href="/article/Coal">coal</a> to generate <a href="/article/Heat">heat</a> and then work. The conversion of energy from one form to another was investigated by scientists and technicians in order to deeper understand the nature of heat towards increased efficiency. Thermodynamics was founded between 1850 and 1860 by <a href="/article/Thomson%2C_Robert_William">R.W. Thomson</a>, <a href="/article/Kelvin%2C_William_Thomson">Lord Kelvin</a>, <a href="/article/Clausius%2C_Rudolf_Julius_Emmanuel">R. Clausius</a>, and <a href="/article/Maxwell%2C_James_Clerk">J.C. Maxwell</a>, building on the seminal work of L.S. Carnot&#39;s <em>Réflexions sur la Puissance Motrice du Feu</em> (<em>Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire</em>, 1824) and the experiments of J.R. Mayer and <a href="/article/Joule%2C_James_Prescott">J.P. Joule</a> about the quantitative equivalence between mechanical work and heat. These studies yielded a set of Laws of Thermodynamics, describing the main principles underlying energy transformations: First Law, energy is conserved; Second Law, entropy cannot decrease in isolated systems; Third Law; entropy is zero when absolute temperature is zero. </p><p>During the 19th Century the laws of thermodynamics were applied to the self-organization of complex, far-from-equilibrium systems (biological, economic, and social). Started as an applied science, Thermodynamics rapidly developed into a more general system of knowledge encompassing almost all branches of life sciences. <a href="/article/Onsager%2C_Lars">L. Onsager</a>, <a href="/article/Prigogine%2C_Ilya">I. Prigogine</a>, <a href="/article/Georgescu-Roegen%2C_Nicholas">N. Georgescu-Roegen</a>, <a href="/article/Lotka%2C_Alfred_James">A. Lotka</a>, and <a href="/article/Odum%2C_Howard_T.">H.T. Odum</a>, among others, contributed to this research and several statements of Thermodynamics laws were tentatively reformulated or introduced a-new. </p><p><strong>Further reading</strong><br /> <a href="http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/thermo.html" class='external text' title="http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/thermo.html">Thermodynamics,</a> NASA website </p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Thermodynamics'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Thermodynamics Tue, 10 Nov 2009 11:33:07 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Cyclone_model <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Cyclone_model'><img border='0' src='/media/approved/5/54/CM1.gif' width='100'/></a> <br /> <h1><span class="next">Reference</span></h1><ul><li> <a href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream//synoptic/cyclone.htm" class='external text' title="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream//synoptic/cyclone.htm">Norwegian Cyclone Model</a></li></ul><p class="noprint">&nbsp;</p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Cyclone_model'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Cyclone_model Tue, 10 Nov 2009 11:06:31 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_Solutions~_Chapter_8 <blockquote><p><em>In a world in which no biological ecosystem is free of human influence and no industrial ecosystem is free of biological influence, it is appropriate to abandon the artificial division between the two frameworks and develop a new synthesis—Earth system ecology—as the logical construct for all of Earth&#39;s ecosystems.</em> [14] <br />—Thomas Graedel <br /><br /><em>Cradle to grave designs dominate modern manufacturing.</em> [28: p. 27]<br />—architect Bill McDonough and chemist Michael Braungart <br /><br /><em>Energy analysis is the first step to determine and compare energy consumption and production of different options. This can involve complex life-cycle net energy analysis, but often the most useful energy analysis is done by calculating simple energy consumption or conversion efficiency on the back of an envelope. </em>[34: p. 166]<br />—John Randolph and Gilbert Masters, 2008 </p></blockquote><p>The <a href="/article/Energy_return_on_investment_%28EROI%29">energy return on investment (EROI)</a> value is a ratio and therefore has no specific dimension. When we use the EROI, we have to decide whether by-products (or coproducts) of the energy conversion process belong on the top or the bottom of the fraction. In the case of some energy systems, for example, ethanol production, the EROI result will be very different, depending on whether we consider the coproduced energy as a positive output—to be added to the numerator, on top, because it can be used “as is” without further conversion and it increases energy return—or a negative input—to be added in the denominator because it needs to be disposed of at some added energy cost and it shrinks energy return. In these cases, an alternative is to compute the net energy value in a system. For example, the production of ethanol creates not only liquid ethanol fuel but also usable animal feed and solid fuel that have energy value too. The total value of the net energy gain or loss in a system can be calculated as follows, which lets us avoid choosing whether a by-product is a gain or loss: </p><blockquote><p><strong>Equation 4</strong>: Net energy value (NEV) = Energy output - Energy input = (Energy in liquid ethanol + Feed by-product + Solid fuel by-product) - (Energy needed to product ethanol) </p></blockquote><p>Net energy computes as an absolute value with a specific dimension, such as Btu per gallon (Btu/gal) in the case of ethanol or gasoline. One British thermal unit (Btu) is small unit of energy equal to 0.293 Watt-hours.</p><p>Notice the simple EROI expression did not have a time component. Very often we also want to examine the time value of energy conversions, that is, their break-even or payback period. For example, how much time will it take an energy system, such as a new geothermal system, a wind farm,a solar array, or even a new more-efficient oil burner, to recover its start-up costs? This is especially useful for systems that have one-time development costs and very low net operating costs, like wind or <a href="/article/Photovoltaics">photovoltaic</a> or solar thermal installations. For such systems, the energy payback time (EPBT) is the equivalent of the inverse of the energy return on investment value (1/EROI). All we need to do is add the time component—typically years—to the denominator on the bottom of the fraction: </p><blockquote><p><strong>Equation 5</strong>: Energy payback time (EPBT) = (Energy input of up-front one-time costs)/(Energy output) = Btu/(Btus per year) </p></blockquote><p>where energy input is the up-front indirect energy cost of creating a system, which is divided by the energy output, which is usually written as the useful energy (or power) output per unit of time, for example, Btu/year. </p><p>For example, in the realm of photovoltaic technologies, the EPBT approach helps us compare the payback time for two different kinds of solar electric panels if we know the indirect up-front “embodied” energy costs of producing the system. The energy input for a crystalline silicon PV module is 5,600 kilowatt-hours per peak kilowatt-hour power output of the module, and for thin-film copper indium diselenide (CIS) modules the energy input is 3,100 (in the same units). So the new CIS module takes less energy to produce. Given that the Sun’s energy shining on two panels is going to be the same, 1,700 (in the same units), we can see that the thin-film module has a payback of 1.8 years versus 3.3 years for the silicon-based module. In reality, the actual net power performance of the panels is about 80% of the original because of system losses to the power after it leaves the module (line loss, inverter operations, etc.). So the energy payback times become 2.2 years for the thin-film and 4.1 years for the silicon modules. </p><p>Now, here is the interesting part. Both these technologies have an expected life of 30 years. So now we can compute the energy return on energy investment as follows, and learn that the newer thin-film module will have an EROI twice as high as the older silicon technology:</p><blockquote><strong>Equation 6</strong>: <br /><blockquote>EROI_silicon = 30 years/4.1 years = 7<br />EROI_{thin-film CIS} = 30 years/2.2years = 14<br /></blockquote></blockquote><p>Table 8.5 shows some current EROI values. Note the huge drop in energy return on US gas and oil production over the seven-decade time. Note also that the energy return on thin-film photovoltaic modules is only slightly lower that on nuclear power—without taking any of the actual economic costs of each into account. </p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_Solutions~_Chapter_8'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_Solutions~_Chapter_8 Tue, 10 Nov 2009 08:17:52 GMT http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_Solutions~_Chapter_7 <a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_Solutions~_Chapter_7'><img border='0' src='/upload/thumb/a/a6/F07.01_EnergyFlow_USEIA_AER_2008_038407.jpg/280px-F07.01_EnergyFlow_USEIA_AER_2008_038407.jpg' width='100'/></a> <blockquote><em>Global climate change … time and geographic scales are unprecedented in their scope, touching every human activity that involves energy or land and requiring a strategy that stretches a century or more into the future. The actions needed to manage the risks of climate change require long-term commitments to severely limit net emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere by developing and deploying new ways of producing and using energy across the world. </em>[4] <br />—Jae Edmonds, Global Energy Technology Strategy Program, 2007 <br /><br /><em>Utilities made their money by building stuff ... because they were rewarded by their regulators with increased rates on the basis of those capital expenses. The more capital they deployed, the more they made.… We are not going to regulate our way out of the problems of the Energy-Climate Era. We can only innovate our way. </em>[6: pp. 222, 243] <br />—Thomas Friedman, 2008 <br /></blockquote><p>As much as we love cars, the typical car is not an efficient transportation device, for two big reasons: An internal combustion engine converts much of the fuel energy to waste <a href="/article/Heat">heat</a>, and most cars are far heavier than they need to be. There are many ways to measure efficiency. For example, we could use the ratio of the object being moved to the object doing the moving. Americans use 680 kilograms (1,500 pounds) of metal and plastic in the form of an average passenger car to transport an average adult who weighs 68 kilograms (150 pounds). So the “efficiency” of the automobile cannot exceed 10%—the fraction of the car’s total mass represented by the passenger (150 divided by 1,500). But this calculation is misleading. The mass of a car affects efficiency only indirectly, by increasing friction and conversion of energy to heat during braking, especially in stop-and-go traffic. Hybrids in which this energy is recaptured lose less energy to heat. Shedding vehicle weight would make gas mileage go up, even without changing the engine itself, as a lower weight reduces friction. </p><p>The efficiency of a typical car is limited through the underlying physics of burning hydrocarbons. Internal combustion engines are not efficient in their conversion of the chemical energy in gas or diesel fuel to mechanical energy for the drivetrain. The “fuel-to-wheel” efficiency for automobiles is about 20%. [18] Only about one-fifth of the chemical energy in a gasoline tank actually reaches the drivetrain as mechanical energy to move the vehicle. All the rest—about 80%—of the energy in your gas tank is used for something else other than driving. Where does the energy go? The “lost” energy escapes as <a href="/article/Evaporation">evaporation</a>, waste heat, internal friction, and exhaust gas. </p><p>A typical car traveling at 65 kilometers (40 miles) per hour on a level road consumes 7.6 liters per hour (2 gallons), which represents about 72 kilowatts (kW) of chemical energy. In the combustion process of a gasoline engine, four-fifths (57 kW) of the original chemical energy is lost as heat. The engine converts the remaining energy (about 14 kW) in the gasoline into the mechanical energy to drive the lights, fan, generator, water pump, transmission, and drive train. These components shed almost one-third of mechanical energy as heat (about 5 kW). Of the remaining mechanical energy, about half is expended as air friction and half goes into actually turning the tires on a road via friction. Only about 10 of the original 72 kW are available for forward (or backward) motion. In short, the thermodynamic efficiency of using internal combustion engines in our cars represents an actual energy efficiency of just under 14%. [16] </p> <p><a href='http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_Solutions~_Chapter_7'>Read Full Article...</a></p> http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_Solutions~_Chapter_7 Tue, 10 Nov 2009 08:16:44 GMT