Eastern Anatolian montane steppe
Lake Van, Turkey (Photograph by Pedro Regato/ WWF MedPO
The Eastern Anatolian montane steppe ecoregion’s position at the junction of three floristic zones creates a unique biotic blend of species. Constituent landscapes of this region are floristically diverse. The mosaic of steppe and patches of woodlands, both remote and intact, are rich in terms of wildlife, too. Mammals such as the striped hyena (Hyena hyena), and marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna), birds such as the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), and reptiles such as the Armenian viper (Vipera raddei) inhabit this region. Agriculture and industrial development have contributed to most of the degradation of ecosystems. More reserves are needed to protect diverse habitats.
Location and General Description
The ecoregion is located at the junction of the biogeographic zones of the Lesser Caucasus and the Iranian and Mediterranean (Mediterranean Sea) zones and exhibits both a great range of altitudinal variation (from 375 to 4095 meters (m) above sea level) and a diversity of climatic zones. Together this has resulted in a diversity of landscapes and ecological communities with a distinct flora and fauna, including many regionally endemic, relict, and rare species. With the adjacent Eastern Anatolian Deciduous Forest this ecoregion is of particular importance as a center of endemism for wild relatives of economically important crop and livestock species. High mountains and extreme continental climate determines the characteristics of the ecoregion. Although the main formation of the ecoregion is montane steppes other community types are deserts and semi-deserts, forests, and woodlands, alpine and subalpine meadows.
The landscape is dominated by the large undulating plateaus between 1500 to 2500 m, although several peaks rise close to 5000 m. A?r? Mountain (5165 m), Alagöa Mountain (4095 m) are the highest of these peaks. The high plateaus are subject to cold and strong winds, limiting arboreal vegetation. Only lowlands and some other microtopographies support patches of woodlands, dominated by oak species. These lie mainly between 800to 2000 meters. The area is ruled a the continental climate with extremely cold winters. Precipitation is more or less even through out the year. There is no summer drought as seen in the adjacent [[ecoregion]s] with Mediterranean climates. Annual rainfall varies between 400 to 600 millimeters (mm). However, the rain shadow of large mountains such as A?r? or Alagöa have 200 to 300 mm rainfall and surrounding regions of large lakes may have 800 to 1000 mm.
Van, Urmia, and Gökçe Lakes are other centers of interest in the landscape. Lake Urmia is a hypersaline body, and has been designated as a RAMSAR site; moreover, it is the largest lake in the Middle East, having an extent of about 5000 square kilometers; Lake Urmia has been declining in water level, such that the surface area of the lake has shrunk to a dramatic extent beginning in the 1970s after the government change in that decade. In 2011 there have been widespread protests against government actions and the government's lack of response to the public's interest in preserving this lake. Van Lake with an area of 3173 square kilometers (km2) is one of the largest lakes in the ecoregion.
Vegetation cover is generally 25-30% in desert habitats and is mostly composed of xerophytic and turf-forming plant species. In contrast with deserts, the vegetation of semi-deserts consists mostly of ephemeral plants, such as Artemisia fragrans, Capparis spinosa, Kochia prostrata, and Poa bulbosa. Semi-deserts are the original habitat of several important wild ancestors of domestic crops, such as Triticum araraticum, T. urartu, Secale vavilovii, Aegilops spp. and many others.
Mountain steppes between 1500 to 2200 m are typically with high vegetation cover and a rich flora. Artemisia austriaca-Artemisia fragrans, Astragalus-Acanthalimon-Onobrychis cushion like formations, graminoid formations (Stipa sp., Festuca sp., Poa bulbosa, Kochia sp.) are the main steppe types of the ecoregion. Other group of plants that dominates in the high mountains (2200-2700 m) are umbellifers belonging to Ferula, Prangos and other genera.
Good representatives of alpine vegetation can be seen in the high peaks of the ecoregion such as A?r?, Alagöa etc. Draba sp., Dracocephalum sp., Oxyria sp., Polygonum sp., Veronica sp. and some other geophytes such as Trollius sp., Scilla sp., Gentiana verna, Primula sp. are the most characteristic species of the alpine belt.
Juniper-Amygdalus steppe woodlands constitute the woody formations of the ecoregion. Although the structure of these woodlands is more or less similar throughout the ecoregion, species compositions can vary. In addition to juniper and almond, there are many species of rose family in these sparse woodlands. The sparse canopy allows the growth of a strong shrub layer (with Pistacia sp., Berberis sp., Rosa sp.) and herb layer dominated by the Astragalus or Artemisia species. Oak woodlands and scrub are more widespread in the mountains of the Anatolia.
Wetlands are among the most threatened habitats in the ecoregion. Typical emergent wetland vegetation include common reed Phragmites australis, Typha spp., sedges Carex aguta and C. diluta, rush Scirpus tabernaemontani, and Bolbolshoenus maritimus.
Biodiversity Features
This ecoregion with its high plateaus and peaks is a center of endemism within the Irano-Turanian phytogeographic region. It is considered a speciation center for such genera as Astragalus, Acantholimon, Couisinia, Centaurea, Onobrychis. Other important group of plant species known to be differentiated mainly in the ecoregion is pears (Pyrus sp.), almonds (Amygdalus sp.), and hawthorns (Crategaus sp.). Amygdalus kotschyi, A. cardauchorum, Crateagus davisii, Pyrus hakiarica, Pyrus salicifolia var. serrulata are endemic taxa known from the ecoregion.
The ancestors of wheat, barley, rye and oats, and several fruit trees, such as grape and wild pear, are found in the region. The region is also an ancient center for the breeding of livestock, and also supports wild relatives of domestic breeds.
These high mountains and patches of woodlands provide favorable habitat for many large mammal species. Brown bear (Ursus arctos), gray wolf (Canis lupus) are two important carnivores. Their presence is an indication of intact habitats. Another important species is striped hyena (Hyena hyena) which was once widespread, but is now on the Red List. Although there is not much information about its population status within the ecoregion it is known to occur in mountains of Turkey, Armenia, and Iran. Wild goat (Capra aegagrus) is often found in areas of rocky scree.
There are 10 Important Bird Areas concentrated in the region of Lake Van, Yüksekova (Hakkari), and Dou beyazt. Uromiyeh Lake in the Iran, and Aras Valley between Armenia and Turkey is another location of high bird diversity.
Current Status
A number of species are close to extinction or extirpation. To date, 35 plant species of economic importance are known to have become extinct in Armenia. A further, 386 species (12% of the flora) are listed in the Armenian Red Data Book. The ecological crisis associated with Lake Sevan in Armenia and Javakheti mountain wetlands in Georgia has been well documented. Vegetated wetlands around the lake have disappeared. In the Ararat valley alone, 1,500 square kilometers(km2) of swamps have been drained and transformed into agricultural land. In the mountainous areas, inhospitable climate, and remoteness make the region unattractive for large scale development.
Protected areas in the ecoregion is not sufficient for effective conservation. In Turkey there are no protected areas within the ecoregion. In Armenia, principal protected areas are Sevani National Park, and Khosrov, Dilijan and Shikahogh State Reserves. Uromiyeh Lake in the Iran with 4636 km2 is one of the important protected areas in the ecoregion.
Types and Severity of Threats
Habitat loss and modification mainly by agriculture, unsustainable use of biological resources, and the impact of introduced and non-native species have degraded natural ecosystems and caused a decline in the [[population]s] of wild animals and plants. In Armenia, the growth of the agricultural, industrial, construction, and energy sectors have led to extensive habitat change across all landscape types. Urban and industrial areas have grown, while forests have been logged and over 20,000 hectares (ha) of marshes and wetlands have been drained.
In mountainous areas, the only threat comes from grazing; nomads herd their livestock to the high mountains during the summer period. In areas with higher human access, overgrazing, has altered steppe composition with Euphorbia sp., Astargalus sp., Acanthalimon sp., Gundelia tournefortii gaining dominance.
Justification of Ecoregion Delineation
This ecoregion encompasses the Irano-Turanian hills and steppe between the Zagros, Lesser Caucasus, and Elburz ranges. In Iran, the boundaries are derived using Zohary’s geobotanical map of the Middle East. It includes Zohary’s mosaics of Northwest Iranian Artemisiestea fragrantis high steppe and Quercetea brantii remnants. In Turkey, the area corresponds to a mosaic of Eastern Anatolian deciduous tree steppe and oak and mixed sub-humid forests according to Guidottei.
Additional Information on this Ecoregion
- For a terser summary of this entry, see the WWF WildWorld profile of this ecoregion.
Further Reading
- Armenia 1999. Biodiversity of Armenia. Ministry of Nature Protection. Yerevan, 126 pp.
- Armenia 2000. Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Ministry of Nature Protection. Yerevan, 160 pp.
- Bobek, H. 1951. Die natürlichen Walder und Gehölzfluren Irans. Bonner geogr. Abh. 8: 62 pp., 4 pls., 1 map.
- Boulos L., A.G. Miller, R.R. Mill. 1994. South West Asia and the Middle East. Pages 293-349 in S.D. Davis, V.H. Heywood, and A.C. Hamilton editors, Centers of plant diversity. Information Press, Oxford. ISBN: 283170197X
- Davis, P.H. 1956. Lake Van and Turkish Kurdistan: a botanical journey. Geographical Journal 122: 156-165.
- Georgia 2000. Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Ministry of Environment, the WB. Tbilisi, 157 pp.
- Guidotti, G., P. Regato, S. Jimenez-Caballero. The Major Forest Types in the Mediterranean. World Wildlife Fund, Rome, Italy.
- Magnin, G. M. Yarar. 1997. Important Bird Areas in Turkey. Do?al Hayat? Koruma Derne?i. ?stanbul. ISBN: 9759608170
- Zohary, M. 1973. Geobotanical Foundations of the Middle East, 2 vols. Fischer, Sttutgart, and Sweets and Zeitlinger, Amsterdam. 739 pp.
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