Asteraceae: The sunflower family

From The Encyclopedia of Earth
Jump to: navigation, search
Botany (main)


October 7, 2014, 9:50 pm
Content Cover Image

Sunflower, Helianthus annuus (Photo by Aldo De Bastiani, via http://luirig.altervista.org/photos-search/index.php?title=Helianthus+annuus)

Asteraceae, also called Compositae, is one of the largest angiospermic plant families among the dicotyledonous,based on the large number of species (1,620 genera and 23,600 species) that represent this plant family with cosmopolitan distribution (Funk et al.,2005). Constituting almost 10% of all flowering plants worldwide, Asteraceae is usually divided into 12 subfamilies (Funk et al., 2009). Except for Antarctica, the family is most abundant in the sub-tropical and temperate latitudes, occurring commonly across meadows, valleys, grassy plains, rolling plateaus, and mountainous slopes (Funk et al., 2005 ; Bayer et al., 2007). Itincludesedible, medicinal, noxious, invasive and endangered species (Heywood et al., 2007). The majority of plant members representing this family are herbaceous in nature, but shrubs and trees, as well as creepers and climbers, are also reported. They can easily be detected by severalfactors, such asfused anthers, single ovules in fruits, and their capitulum inflorescence (Garcia et al., 2010).

Physical Description

Leaf arrangement is alternate,often appearing in basal rosette formation and the leaves are devoid of stipules. The floral arrangement is unique for this plant family with a distinct head-like structure appearing as a single flower called a capitulum (Fig 1). Botanically speaking, the capitulum inflorescence is an unique collection of numerous tiny flowers arranged on a common platform (receptacle). There are two types of flowers observed within the capitulum inflorescence-ray or ligulate and disk or tubular. The central part of the capitulum is occupied by the disk florets and the periphery is arranged with the ray florets.

Flowers.jpg

Figure 1. Conspicuous capitulum inflorescence of Asteraceae family. (Saikat Basu, own work)

Flowers could be unisexual or bisexual (hermaphrodite), regular or irregular, but areusually pentamerous and sympetalous with inferior ovary. The common fruit type of Asteraceae is achenes. The specialized design of the flowers and the inflorescence are believed to promote pollination and the process of cross pollination. Androecium has five stamens united at the anthers, forming a tube-like structure around the style. Calyx is often absent in this family and are replacedby bristles or scaly structures in the form of pappus. The pappus is known to help in the widespread dispersal of matured seeds via wind. Mature seeds mostly do not have any endosperms. The wide diversity of the Asteraceae family is presented in Figures2-3.

Flowers2.jpg

Figure 2. Morphological diversity of floral structures among Asteraceae members. (Saikat Basu, own work)

Flowers3.jpg

Figure 3. Morphological diversity of floral structures among Asteraceae members. (Saikat Basu, own work)

Importance of Family

The plant family is important economically, producing many oil products such as sunflower, safflower etc; vegetables such as artichokes, lettuce etc; ornamental members such as dahlia, zinnia, cosmos, aster, sunflowers, marigolds, chrysanthemum etc; medicinal plants such calendula, tansy, chamomile, wormwood, arnica, coltsfoot, echinacea, elecampane, milk thistle, chicory etc and weeds like dandelion, ragwort, groundsel etc (Funk et al., 2009). Asteraceae is known to be one of the most evolved among the angiospermic plant families and is comparable to Orchidaceae members among monocotyledonous for their widespread, morphological, anatomical, physiological and ecological adaptations for wide distribution, dissemination and reproductive success (Heywood et al., 2007).

Asteraceae--fig-4.jpg

Figure 4. A-J. Variations in the inflorescence (capitulum) among different members of Asteraceae.K-M. Pappus (modified calyx), a diagnostic character of the Asteraceae family associated with the floralstructure. Thin and dried, they help in wide dispersal of the seeds of the plants via wind. Widemorphological variations are observed in the structure of pappus across the family. (Saikat Basu, own work)

Asteraceae--fig-5.jpg

Figure 5. Some important members of Asteraceae. A. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) B. Dahlia sp.;C. Sunflower seeds after removal of the hard external seed coats; D. Acmella oleracea (L.) R. K. Jansen;D. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale F. H. Wigg); and E. Parthenium hysterophorus L.(Saikat Basu, own work)

Asteraceae-weeds--fig-6.jpg

Fig 6. Weeds from Asteraceae family.(Saikat Basu, own work)

Plants representing Asteraceae members are presented in table 1.

Table 1. Plants representing Asteraceae family

Ref.
Species & accepted Taxa
Genera
Family
USDA, 2014
Acamptopappus sphaerocephalus (Harv. & A. Gray ex A. Gray) A. Gray
Acamptopappus (A. Gray) A. Gray
Asteraceae
USDA, 2014
Acourtia runcinata (Lag. ex D. Don) B.L. Turner
Acourtia D. Don
USDA, 2014
Ageratina altissima (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob.
Ageratina Spach
USDA, 2014
Amberboa moschata (L.) DC.
Amberboa (Pers.) Less.
USDA, 2014
Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.
Ambrosia L.
USDA, 2014
Anacyclus clavatus (Desf.) Pers.
Anacyclus L.
USDA, 2014
Anisocoma acaulis Torr. & A. Gray
Anisocoma Torr. & A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Aphanostephus skirrhobasis (DC.) Trel.
Aphanostephus DC.
USDA, 2014
Argyranthemum frutescens (L.) Sch. Bip.
Argyranthemum Webb
USDA, 2014
Arnoseris minima (L.) Schweigg. & Körte
Arnoseris Gaertn.
USDA, 2014
Baccharis bigelovii A. Gray
Baccharis L.
USDA, 2014
Balduina atropurpurea Harper
Balduina Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Barkleyanthus salicifolius (Kunth) H. Rob. & Brettell
Barkleyanthus (Kunth) H. Rob. & Brettell
USDA, 2014
Bebbia juncea (Benth.) Greene
Bebbia (Benth.) Greene
USDA, 2014
Berlandiera lyrata Benth.
Berlandiera DC.
USDA, 2014
Bigelowia nuttallii L.C. Anderson
Bigelowia DC.
USDA, 2014
Blepharizonia plumosa (Kellogg) Greene
Blepharizonia Greene
USDA, 2014
Borrichia arborescens (L.) DC.
Borrichia Adans.
USDA, 2014
Borrichia ×cubana Britton & S.F. Blake (pro sp.)
USDA, 2014
Calendula arvensis L.
Calendula L.
USDA, 2014
Calendula officinalis L.
USDA, 2014
Calycoseris parryi A. Gray
Calycoseris A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Calycoseris wrightii A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Carduus crispus L.
Carduus L.
USDA, 2014
Carlquistia muirii (A. Gray) B.G. Baldw.
Carlquistia B.G. Baldw.
USDA, 2014
Carthamus leucocaulos Sm.
Carthamus L.
USDA, 2014
Catananche caerulea L.
Catananche L.
USDA, 2014
Centratherum punctatum Cass.
Centratherum Cass.
USDA, 2014
Chaetadelpha wheeleri A. Gray ex S. Watson
Chaetadelpha A. Gray ex S. Watson
USDA, 2014
Chaptalia nutans (L.) Polak.
Chaptalia Vent.
USDA, 2014
Chrysactinia mexicana A. Gray
Chrysactinia A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Chrysopsis godfreyi Semple
Chrysopsis (Nutt.) Elliott
USDA, 2014
Clappia suaedifolia A. Gray
Clappia A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Constancea nevinii (A. Gray) B.G. Baldw.
Constancea B.G. Baldw.
USDA, 2014
Cosmos caudatus Kunth
Cosmos Cav.
USDA, 2014
Crupina vulgaris Cass.
Crupina (Pers.) DC.
USDA, 2014
Cymophora accedens (S.F. Blake) B.L. Turner & A. Powell
Cymophora B.L. Rob.
USDA, 2014
Delairea odorata Lem.
Delairea Lem.
USDA, 2014
Dicranocarpus parviflorus A. Gray
Dicranocarpus A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Doellingeria umbellata (Mill.) Nees
Doellingeria Nees
USDA, 2014
Dysodiopsis tagetoides (Torr. & A. Gray) Rydb.
Dysodiopsis (A. Gray) Rydb.
USDA, 2014
Echinacea laevigata (C.L. Boynt. & Beadle) S.F. Blake
Echinacea Moench
USDA, 2014
Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch. Bip.
Eleutheranthera Poit. ex Bosc
USDA, 2014
Enydra sessilis (Sw.) DC.
Enydra Lour.
USDA, 2014
Eriophyllum congdonii Brandegee
Eriophyllum Lag.
USDA, 2014
Eupatorium altissimum L.
Eupatorium L.
USDA, 2014
Evax prolifera Nutt. ex DC.
Evax Gaertn.
USDA, 2014
Fitchia speciosa Cheeseman
Fitchia Hook. f.
USDA, 2014
Flourensia pringlei (A. Gray) S.F. Blake
Flourensia DC.
USDA, 2014
Flyriella parryi (A. Gray) R.M. King & H. Rob.
Flyriella R.M. King & H. Rob.
USDA, 2014
Garberia heterophylla (W. Bartram) Merr. & F. Harper
Garberia A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Glyptopleura setulosa A. Gray
Glyptopleura D.C. Eaton
USDA, 2014
Guardiola platyphylla A. Gray
Guardiola Cerv. ex Humb. & Bonpl.
USDA, 2014
Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britton & Rusby
Gutierrezia Lag.
Asteraceae
USDA, 2014
Gynura aurantiaca (Blume) DC.
Gynura Cass.
USDA, 2014
Haploesthes greggii A. Gray
Haploesthes A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Hasteola suaveolens (L.) Pojark.
Hasteola Raf.
USDA, 2014
Hedypnois cretica (L.) Dum. Cours.
Hedypnois Mill.
USDA, 2014
Heliomeris soliceps (Barneby) Yates
Heliomeris Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Hemizonia fasciculata (DC.) Torr. & A. Gray
Hemizonia DC.
USDA, 2014
Heteranthemis viscidehirta Schott
Heteranthemis Schott
USDA, 2014
Holocarpha obconica (J.C. Clausen & D.D. Keck) D.D. Keck
Holocarpha Greene
USDA, 2014
Hymenopappus biennis B.L. Turner
Hymenopappus L'Hér.
USDA, 2014
Hypochaeris microcephala (Sch. Bip.) Cabrera
Hypochaeris L.
USDA, 2014
Ionactis elegans (Soreng & Spellenb.) G.L. Nesom
Ionactis Greene
USDA, 2014
Ixeris stolonifera A. Gray
Ixeris (Cass.) Cass.
USDA, 2014
Jamesianthus alabamensis S.F. Blake & Sherff
Jamesianthus S.F. Blake & Sherff
USDA, 2014
Jensia yosemitana (Parry ex A. Gray) B.G. Baldw.
Jensia B.G. Baldw.
USDA, 2014
Keysseria helenae (Forbes & Lydgate) Cabrera
Keysseria Lauterb.
USDA, 2014
Kyhosia bolanderi (A. Gray) B.G. Baldw.
Kyhosia B.G. Baldw.
USDA, 2014
Lagophylla ramosissima Nutt.
Lagophylla Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Lagophylla ramosissima Nutt. ssp. ramosissima
USDA, 2014
Lasiospermum bipinnatum (Thunb.) Druce
Lasiospermum M. Lagasca
USDA, 2014
Leontodon hispidus L.
Leontodon L.
USDA, 2014
Leontodon taraxacoides (Vill.) Mérat
USDA, 2014
Leuciva dealbata (A. Gray) Rydb.
Leuciva Rydb.
USDA, 2014
Logfia californica (Nutt.) Holub
Logfia Cass.
USDA, 2014
Lygodesmia grandiflora (Nutt.) Torr. & A. Gray
Lygodesmia D. Don
USDA, 2014
Malacothrix coulteri Harv. & A. Gray
Malacothrix DC.
USDA, 2014
Matricaria discoidea DC.
Matricaria L.
USDA, 2014
Micropus californicus Fisch. & C.A. Mey.
Micropus L.
USDA, 2014
Montanoa hibiscifolia (Benth.) Standl.
Montanoa Llave & Lex.
USDA, 2014
Nicolletia edwardsii A. Gray
Nicolletia A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Oclemena reticulata (Pursh) G.L. Nesom
Oclemena Greene
USDA, 2014
Onopordum acaulon L.
Onopordum L.
USDA, 2014
Osmadenia tenella Nutt.
Osmadenia Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Pallenis maritima Greuter
Pallenis Cass.
USDA, 2014
Pectis carthusianorum Less.
Pectis L.
USDA, 2014
Pericome caudata A. Gray
Pericome A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Phoebanthus grandiflorus (Torr. & A. Gray) S.F. Blake
Phoebanthus S.F. Blake
USDA, 2014
Piptocoma acevedoi Pruski
Piptocoma Cass.
USDA, 2014
Plecostachys serpyllifolia (P.J. Bergius) Hilliard & B.L. Burtt
Plecostachys Hilliard & B.L. Burtt
USDA, 2014
Polymnia laevigata Beadle
Polymnia L.
USDA, 2014
Prenanthes alata (Hook.) D. Dietr.
Prenanthes L.
USDA, 2014
Psathyrotopsis scaposa (A. Gray) H. Rob.
Psathyrotopsis Rydb.
USDA, 2014
Pseudogynoxys chenopodioides Kunth
Pseudogynoxys (Greenm.) Cabrera
USDA, 2014
Pulicaria dysenterica (L.) Bernh.
Pulicaria Gaertn.
USDA, 2014
Rafinesquia neomexicana A. Gray
Rafinesquia Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Ratibida pinnata (Vent.) Barnhart
Ratibida Raf.
USDA, 2014
Remya mauiensis Hillebr.
Remya Hillebr. ex Benth.
USDA, 2014
Rolandra fruticosa (L.) Kuntze
Rolandra Rottb.
USDA, 2014
Sachsia polycephala Griseb.
Sachsia Griseb.
USDA, 2014
Saussurea americana D.C. Eaton
Saussurea DC.
USDA, 2014
Scolymus hispanicus L.
Scolymus L.
USDA, 2014
Sericocarpus linifolius (L.) Britton, Sterns & Poggenb.
Sericocarpus Greene
USDA, 2014
Shinnersoseris rostrata (A. Gray) S. Tomb
Shinnersoseris S. Tomb
USDA, 2014
Silybum eburneum Coss. & Durieu
Silybum Adans.
USDA, 2014
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.
USDA, 2014
Simsia calva (Engelm. & A. Gray) A. Gray
Simsia Pers.
USDA, 2014
Simsia lagasceiformis DC.
USDA, 2014
Smallanthus uvedalius (L.) Mack. ex Small
Smallanthus Mack. ex Small
Asteraceae
USDA, 2014
Soliva mutisii Kunth
Soliva Ruiz & Pav.
USDA, 2014
Sphaeromeria capitata Nutt.
Sphaeromeria Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Sphagneticola gracilis (Rich.) Pruski
Sphagneticola O. Hoffm.
USDA, 2014
Spilanthes acmella (L.) L.
Spilanthes Jacq.
USDA, 2014
Spiracantha cornifolia Kunth
Spiracantha Kunth
USDA, 2014
Stenotus lanuginosus (A. Gray) Greene
Stenotus Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Stephanomeria exigua Nutt.
Stephanomeria Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Stokesia laevis (Hill) Greene
Stokesia L'Hér.
USDA, 2014
Struchium sparganophorum (L.) Kuntze
Struchium P. Br.
USDA, 2014
Stylocline intertexta Morefield
Stylocline Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.
Synedrella Gaertn.
USDA, 2014
Tanacetum bipinnatum (L.) Sch. Bip.
Tanacetum L.
USDA, 2014
Tetradymia filifolia Greene
Tetradymia DC.
USDA, 2014
Thurovia triflora Rose
Thurovia Rose
USDA, 2014
Tonestus kingii (D.C. Eaton) G.L. Nesom
Tonestus A. Nelson
USDA, 2014
Tragopogon lamottei Rouy
Tragopogon L.
USDA, 2014
Tridax procumbens L.
Tridax L.
USDA, 2014
Tripolium pannonicum (Jacq.) Dobrocz.
Tripolium Nees
USDA, 2014
Tussilago farfara L.
Tussilago L.
USDA, 2014
Urospermum picroides (L.) Scop. ex F.W. Schmidt
Urospermum Scop.
USDA, 2014
Vanclevea stylosa (Eastw.) Greene
Vanclevea Greene
USDA, 2014
Varilla texana A. Gray
Varilla A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Venegasia carpesioides DC.
Venegasia DC.
USDA, 2014
Venidium fastuosum (Jacq.) Stapf
Venidium Less.
USDA, 2014
Verbesina alternifolia (L.) Britton ex Kearney
Verbesina L.
USDA, 2014
Verbesina aristata (Elliott) A. Heller
USDA, 2014
Verbesina chapmanii J.R. Coleman
USDA, 2014
Vernonia acaulis (Walter) Gleason
Vernonia Schreb.
USDA, 2014
Vernonia albicaulis Pers.
USDA, 2014
Vesicarpa potentilloides (A. Gray) Rydb.
Vesicarpa Rydb.
USDA, 2014
Viguiera cordifolia A. Gray
Viguiera Kunth
USDA, 2014
Wedelia lanceolata DC.
Wedelia Jacq.
USDA, 2014
Wilkesia gymnoxiphium A. Gray
Wilkesia A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Wyethia amplexicaulis (Nutt.) Nutt.
Wyethia Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Xanthisma texanum DC.
Xanthisma DC.
USDA, 2014
Xanthium spinosum L.
Xanthium L.
USDA, 2014
Xanthium strumarium L.
USDA, 2014
Xanthocephalum gymnospermoides (A. Gray) Benth. & Hook. f.
Xanthocephalum Willd.
USDA, 2014
Xylorhiza confertifolia (Cronquist) T.J. Watson
Xylorhiza Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Xylorhiza glabriuscula Nutt.
USDA, 2014
Xylothamia palmeri (A. Gray) G.L. Nesom
Xylothamia G.L. Nesom, Suh, D. Morgan & Simpson
USDA, 2014
Xylothamia triantha (S.F. Blake) G.L. Nesom
USDA, 2014
Yermo xanthocephalus Dorn
Yermo Dorn
USDA, 2014
Youngia japonica (L.) DC.
Youngia Cass.
USDA, 2014
Youngia thunbergiana DC.
USDA, 2014
Zinnia acerosa (DC.) A. Gray
Zinnia L.
USDA, 2014
Zinnia angustifolia Kunth
USDA, 2014
Zinnia anomala A. Gray
USDA, 2014
Zinnia maritima Kunth
USDA, 2014
Zinnia maritima Kunth var. palmeri (A. Gray) B.L. Turner
USDA, 2014
Zinnia peruviana (L.) L.
USDA, 2014
Zinnia violacea Cav.

References and Further Reading

  • Bayer RG, Breitwieser J, Jeffrey C, Dillon, MO, Eldenäs P, Funk V, Garcia-Jacas N, Hind DJN, Karis PO, Lack HW, Nesom G, Nordenstam B, Oberprieler Ch, Panero JL, Puttock C, Robinson H, Stuessy TF, Susanna A, Urtubey E, Vogt R, Ward J, Watson LE (2007) Compositae In: Kadereit JW, Jeffrey C (eds), The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants ,Vol III, Flowering Plants · Eudicots, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Germany. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-31051-8_7
  • Carlquist, S. (1976) Tribal interrelationships and phylogeny of the Asteraceae. Aliso 8: 465-492.
  • Cronquist, A. (1980) Asteraceae. In: A. E. Radford et al., eds. 1980+. Vascular Flora of the Southeastern United States. 2+ vols. Chapel Hill. Vol. 1.
  • Cronquist, A. (1994) Asteraceae. In: A. Cronquist et al., eds. 1972+. Intermountain Flora. Vascular Plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. 5+ vols. in 6+. New York and London. Vol. 5, pp. 5–471.
  • De Villiers, S. E., and A. Cadman (2001) An analysis of the palynomorphs obtained from Tertiary sediments at Koingnaas, Namaqualand, South Africa. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 33: 17-47.
  • Eldenäs, P. K., M. Källersjö, and A. A. Anderberg. 1999. Phylogenetic placement and circumscription of tribes Inuleae s. str. and Plucheeae (Asteraceae): Evidence from sequences of chloroplast gene ndhF. Molec. Phylogen. Evol. 13: 50–58.
  • Elsik, W. C., and T. E. Yancey (2000) Palynomorph biozones in the context of changing paleoclimate, middle Eocene to lower Oligocene of the Northwest Gulf of Mexico. Palynology 24: 177-186.
  • Funk VA, Bayer RJ, Keeley S, Chan R, Watson L, Gemeinholzer B, Schilling E, Panrelo JL, Baldwin BG, Garcia-Jacas N, et al. (2005) Everywhere but Antarctica: using a supertree to understand the diversity and distribution of the Compositae. In Biol Skr Edited by Friis I, Balslev H. 55:343-373.
  • Funk VA, Susanna A, Stuessy TF, Robinson H (2009) Classification of Compositae. In: Funk VA, Susanna A, Stuessy T, Bayer R (eds) Systematics, evolution and biogeography of the Compositae. IAPT, Vienna, pp 171–189.
  • Funk, V. A ., R. J. Bayer, S. Keeley, R. Chan, L. Watson, B. Gemeinholzer, E. E. Schilling, J. L. Panero, B. G. Baldwin, N. T. García Jacas, A. Susanna, and R. K. Jansen(2005) Everywhere but Antarctica: using a supertree to understand the diversity and distribution of the Compositae. Pages 343-373 in Plant diversity and complexity patterns-local, regional and global dimensions, (I. Friis and H. Balslev, eds.). Biol. Skr. 55.
  • Garcia S, Panero JL, Siroky J, Kovarik A (2010) Repeated reunions and splits feature the highly dynamic evolution of 5S and 35S ribosomal RNA genes (rDNA) in the Asteraceae family. BMC Plant Biology, 10:176 doi:10.1186/1471-2229-10-176.
  • Goertzen, L. R., J. J. Cannone, R. R. Gutell, and R.K. Jansen (2003) ITS secondary structure derived from comparative analysis: implications for sequence alignment and phylogeny of Asteraceae. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 29: 216-234.
  • Graham, A. (1996) A contribution to the geologic history of the Compositae. Pages 123-140 in Compositae: Systematics. Proceedings of the International Compositae Conference, Kew, 1994, (D. J. N. Hind and H. Beentje, H. J. eds.). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
  • Harris, E. M. (1995) Inflorescence and floral ontogeny in Asteraceae: a synthesis of historical and current concepts. Botanical Review 61: 93-278.
  • Heywood, V. H., J. B. Harbourne, and B. L. Turner, eds. (1977) The Biology and Chemistry of the Compositae. 2 vols. London, New York, and San Francisco.
  • Heywood, V.H., Brummitt, R.K., Culham, A., & Seberg, O. (2007) Asteraceae. Pp. 46-51. In: Flowering Plant Families of the World. New York, Firefly Books.
  • Hind, D. J. N., C. Jeffrey, and G. V. Pope, eds. (1995) Advances in Compositae Systematics. Kew.
  • Hind, D. J. N., H. J. Beentje, P. D. S. Caligari, and S. A. L. Smith, eds. (1996) Proceedings of the International Compositae Conference, Kew, 1994. 2 vols. Kew.
  • Jansen, R. K. et al. (1991) Phylogeny and character evolution in the Asteraceae based on chloroplast DNA restriction site mapping. Syst. Bot. 16: 98–115.
  • Jansen, R. K. et al. (1992) Chloroplast DNA variation in the Asteraceae: Phyologenetic and evolutionary implications. In: D. E. Soltis et al., eds. 1992. Molecular Systematics of Plants. New York. Pp. 252–294.
  • Jansen, R. K., and J. D. Palmer (1987) A chloroplast DNA inversion marks an ancient evolutionary split in the sunflower family (Asteraceae). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84: 5818-5822.
  • Jeffrey, C. (1978) Compositae. In: V. H. Heywood, ed. 1978. Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford. Pp. 263–268.
  • Jeffrey, C. (1995) Compositae systematics 1975–1993. Developments and desiderata. In: D. J. N. Hind et al., eds. 1995. Advances in Compositae Systematics. Kew. Pp. 3–22.
  • Jeffrey, C. (2007) Compositae: Introduction with key to tribes. Pages 61-87 in Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, vol. VIII, Flowering Plants, Eudicots, Asterales (J. W. Kadereit and C. Jeffrey, eds.). Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
  • Kedves, M. (1971) Presence de types sporomorphs importants dans les sediments prequaternaires Egyptiens. Acta. Bot. Hung. 17: 371-378.
  • Kim K.-J., K. S. Choi, and R. K. Jansen (2005) Two chloroplast DNA inversions originated simultaneously during the early evolution of the sunflower family (Asteraceae). Mol. Biol. Evol. 22: 1783-1792.
  • Kim K.-J., R. K. Jansen. (1995) ndhF sequence evolution and the major clades in the sunflower family. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92: 10379-10383.
  • Kim, K. J. et al. (1992) Phylogenetic implications of rbcL sequence variation in the Asteraceae. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 79: 428–445.
  • Lane, M. (1996) Pollination biology of Compositae. Pages 61-80 in Compositae: Biology and Utilization, Proceedings of the International Compositae Conference, Kew, 1994, (P. D. S. Caligari and D. J. N. Hind, eds.). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
  • Panero, J. L. and V. A. Funk (2002) Toward a phylogenetic subfamilial classification for the Compositae (Asteraceae). Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 115: 909–922.
  • Soltis, D. E., E. V. Mavrodiev, J. J. Doyle, J. Rauscher, and P. S. Soltis (2008) ITS and ETS sequence data and phylogeny reconstruction in allopolyploids and hybrids. Syst. Bot. 33: 7-20.
  • Song, Z. C., Y. H. Zheng, and M. Y. Li. (1999) Paleogene palynostratigraphy. Pages 141-265 in Fossil Spores and Pollen of China: The Late Cretaceous and Tertiary Spores and Pollen (Z. C. Song, Y. H. Zheng, M. Y. Li, Y. Y. Zhang, W. M. Wang, D. N. Wang, C. B. Zhao, S. F. Zhou, Z. H. Zhu, and Y. N. Zhao, eds.). Science Press, Beijing.
  • Stuessy, T.F., and D. Garver (1996) The defensive role of pappus in heads of Compositae. Pages 81-91 in Compositae: Biology and Utilization, Proceedings of the International Compositae Conference, Kew, 1994, (P. D. S. Caligari and D. J. N. Hind, eds.). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
  • Thorne, R. F., and J. L. Reveal (2007) An updated classification of the class Magnoliopsida ("Angiospermae"). Bot. Rev. 73: 67-181.
  • Timme, R. E., B. B. Simpson, and C. R. Linder (2007) High-resolution phylogeny for Helianthus (Asteraceae) using the 18S-26S ribosomal DNA external transcribed spacer. Am. J. Bot. 94: 1837-1852.
  • USDA (2014) Classification for Kingdom Plantae Down to Family Solanaceae. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Available at: https://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=profile&symbol=Solanaceae&display=63 On 28th June, 2014
  • Wagenitz, G. (1976) Systematics and phylogeny of the Compositae (Asteraceae). Pl. Syst. Evol. 125: 29–46.

Citation

Basu, S., Zandi, P., Cetzal-Ix, W., & Sengupta, R. (2014). Asteraceae: The sunflower family. Retrieved from http://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Asteraceae:_The_sunflower_family